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jamgon kongtruls retreat manual by ngawang zangpoIt looks like your browser needs updating. For the best experience on Quizlet, please update your browser. Learn More. The vegans of the animal world. Think cattle and gorillas. Carnivores Animals that ingest mostly other animals. The midwesterners of the animal world. Think dogs and cats Omnivores Animals that consume animals as well as plants. Humans are omnivores Things Provided by an Animal Diet An animal's diet must provide fuel (chemical energy), organic raw materials for the use in biosynthesis, and essential nutrients Four Main Feeding Mechanisms There are four main feeding mechanisms found in the animal kingdom. These include substrate feeders, fluid feeders, bulk feeders and suspension feeders. Suspension FEeders Found mainly in aquatic animals. Suspension feeders filter out food particles in the water, trap them in mucus, and use cilia to push the food in the mucus back into the throat. EXAMPLE: Baleen whales Substrate Feeders Animals that essentially eat their homes. THey live on their food source. EXAMPLE: Leaf miner caterpillars Fluid Feeders Pesky, pesky parasite. Animals that suck nutrient rich fluids from a living host EXAMPLE: Mosquitos that suck blood from their human hosts with a needle like mouthpart Bees that use their tongues to sip nectar from a flower Bulk Feeders Animals that need to chew their food or forego their table manners. Most animals fall into this kind of category, and eat relatively large pieces of food. They have many adaptations such as teeth and jaws that allow them to tear of pieces of their prey. ATP Generation This process is based on the oxidation of energy rich organic molecules.http://www.monarchiaerembolt.hu/tmp/how-to-cite-a-reference-manual-mla.xml
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Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are thus necessary for cellular respiration, although their energy yields are not the same (1 gram of fat stores twice as much energy as 1 gram of protein) When Animals Eat Too Much When animals take in more calories than they need to produce ATP, the rest is used for biosynthesis or the forming of organic molecules from existing carbon skeletons. Human bodies will store this surplus in energy depots of glycogen. Once the depots are filled, the energy is stored as fat. Glycogen A polymer made of glucose units that stores excess energy When Animals Don't Eat Enough When fewer calories are taken in than expended, fuel is taken out of storage depots and oxidized. This may cause an animal to lose weight. Most healthy people have enough stored fat to sustain them through several weeks of starvation. Undernourishment The condition of being chronically deficient in calories.In this condition, stores of glycogen and fat are used up, forcing the body to break down its own proteins, such as proteins housed in the brain and muscle. This leaves irreversible damage and can result in death. Anorexia A condition of undernourishment found mostly in females during which individuals compulsively starve themselves to lose weight. Overnourishment Also known as obesity. An increasingly common problem in which the body hoards fats, and stores the fats instead of using them. Obesity can lead to multiple health problems, such as diabetes, breast and colon cancer and cardiovascular disease. Weight Regulating Hormones Most weight regulating hormones are polypeptides, or proteins. By identifying the genes that code for these proteins, scientists are able to explain why certain people have certain weight loss struggles. Leptin A key long-term appetite regulator in mammals. A hormone that is produced by the fat tissue (adipose tissue) that suppresses appetites as its level increases. As body fat decreases, leptin levels fall and appetites decrease.http://xn--80adpfaaeictf0c6c7i.xn--p1ai/public/how-to-cite-a-software-manual.xml Most obese people have a high amount of leptin in their body, but this high level isn't recognized by their brain's satiety center. It's main function is not to prevent weight gain as much as it is to prevent weight loss PYY Secreted by the small intestine after meals. It is an appetite suppressant that counter the effect of ghrelin, an appetite stimulant. Ghrelin This hormone is secreted by the stomach wall. It is one of the signals that triggers feelings of hunger. Insulin Released by the pancreas after it is triggered by a rise in blood sugar levels. Suppresses appetite by acting on the brain. Evolutionary Advantages of Fat Hoarding Fat hoarding would have been an evolutionary advantage because our ancestors were hunter gatherers who rarely got the opportunity to eat meat from animals. Their feast-or-famine existence would have worked with natural selection to select for individuals who were able to store high-energy molecules from the rare feast, as they were more likely to survive famines. The Petrel Example Petrels are an example in which hoarding fat can be very beneficial. Petrel parents must fly very long distances to find food and finding foods that are high in fats means that they expend less energy carrying that food back even though they can provide the same amount of calories to their young ones. However, this oily diet is low in protein so petrel babies must eat a lot more of it to get what is needed, thereby overconsuming overall calories. However, these fat reserves help growing chicks survive periods in which their parents are unable to bring food back Essential Nutrients Supplied by the animal's diet. Materials that must be obtained in preassembled form because the animal's cells cannot make them from raw materials. Certain animals need different essential nutrients. There are four classes of essential nutrients: 1. Essential amino acids 2. Essential fatty acids 3. Vitamins 4.http://www.raumboerse-luzern.ch/mieten/eclipse-mp3-player-fit-clip-manual Minerals EXAMPLE: Vitamin C or Ascorbic Acid is necessary for primates, guinea pigs and some birds, but not for other animals. Malnourished The condition of having a diet that is missing one or more essential nutrients.Essential Amino Acids Of the 20 amino acids required by animals, they can only synthesize about half of them when their diet includes nitrogen. Humans have eight essential amino acids. Protein Deficiency A type of malnutrition that occurs when a diet lacks essential amino acids. The victims tend to be children who are likely to suffer mental and physical retardation. Kwashiorkor A protein deficiency in which the diet provides enough calories but is deficient in proteins. Often occurs when a child is weaned from their mother's milk Most Reliable Source of Amino Acids Animal products are the most reliable source of amino acids. Incomplete Plants Plants that are deficient in one of more of the essential amino acids. Essential Amino Acids in Humans Methionine, Valine, Threonine, Phenylalanine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Tryptophan, Lysine (histidine in children) Essential Fatty Acid Fatty acids that animals cannot synthesize themselves. EXAMPLE: Linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that is required to make some of the phospholipids found in membranes Vitamins Organic molecules required in amounts that are small. Deficiencies can cause severe problems. Divided into two groups: 1. Water Soluble-B Complex, Niacin, Pantothenic Acid, Folic Acid, Biotin, Vitamin C EXAMPLE: B Complex-compounds that function as coenzymes for important metabolic functions 2. Fat Soluble-Vitamin A, D, E and K. Excesses of fat soluble vitamins are not excreted but deposited, and their build up can be toxic EXAMPLE: Vitamin A-functions in eye development Recommended Daily Allowance Also known as an RDA. It helps determine how much of a vitamin a certain individual should be getting each day. Vitamin B1 Also known as Thiamine. It is found in pork, legumes, and whole grains. It functions as a coenzyme in removing carbon dioxide from organic compounds. A deficiency can cause beriberi, which leaves to nerve disorders, emaciation and anemia Vitamin B2 Also known as Riboflavin. It is found in dairy products, meats, enriched grains and vegetables. It is a component of coenzymes FAD and FMN. A deficiency can cause skin lesions. Niacin Found in nuts, meats and grains. A deficiency can cause skin and gastrointestinal lesions as well as nervous disorders, while an extreme excess can cause liver damage. Vitamin B6 Also known as pyridoxine. It is found in meats, vegetables and whole grains, and is a coenzyme used in amino acid metabolism. A deficiency can result in irritability, convulsions, muscular twitching and anemia. An extreme excess can result in an unstable gait, numb feet and poor coordination. Pantothenic Acid Found in most foods, and is a component of coenzyme A. A deficiency can cause fatigue, numbness and the tingling of hands and feet Folic Acid Also known as folacin. Found in green vegetables, oranges, nuts, legumes and whole grains. It is a coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism. A deficiency can cause anemia and gastrointestinal problems while an extreme excess can mask a deficiency of vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 Found in meats, eggs and dairy products. It is coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism and the maturation of red blood cells. A deficiency can cause anemia and nervous system disorders. Biotin Found in legumes, other vegetables and meats. It is a coenzyme in the synthesis of fat, glycogen and amino acids. A deficiency can cause scaly skin inflammation, and neuromuscular disorders. Vitamin C Also known as Ascorbic Acid. It is found in fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, broccoli, cabbage, tomatoes and green peppers. It is used in collagen synthesis, is an antioxidant, aids in detoxification and improves iron absorption. A deficiency can cause scurvy, weakness, delayed wound healing and impaired immunity, while an excess can cause gastrointestinal excess. Vitamin A Also known as retinol. It is found in deep green and orange fruits and vegetables as Provitamin A or beta-carotene. It is found in the retinol form in dairy products. It is a component of visual pigments, maintenance of epithelial tissues, antioxidants and helps prevent cell membrane damage. A deficiency can cause vision problems and dry scaly skin, while an excess can cause headaches, irritability, vomiting, hair loss, blurred vision, and liver and bone damage. Vitamin D Found in dairy products, egg yolks, and can be made in human skin in the presence of sunlight. It aids in the absorption and use of calcium and phosphorous, and promotes bone growth. A deficiency can cause rickets (bone deformities) in children and bone softening in adults. An excess can cause brain, cardiovascular and kidney damage. Vitamin E Also known as Tocopherol. Found in vegetable oils, nuts and seeds. It is an antioxidant, and can help prevent damage to cell membranes. Vitamin K Also known as phylloquinone. It is found in green vegetables and tea, and can be made by colon bacteria. It is important in blood clotting, and a deficiency will lead to defective blood clotting. An excess leads to liver damage and anemia. Minerals Simple, inorganic nutrients usually required in small amounts. Their requirements are different for different animal species EXAMPLE: Humans need a lot of calcium and phosphorous for bone, nerve and muscle development Ingestion The act of eating. It is the first step in food processing. Why Must Food Be Processed Animals cannot process macromolecules directly because the polymers are too large to pass through membranes and enter cells and the macromolecules that make up food are not identical to those needed to make up the animal. Digestion The second stage of food processing. The process of breaking food down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb. It cleaves molecules into component monomers which the animal can use to make polymers it needs. Enzymatic Hydrolysis The process through which the body breaks up polymers by adding water to the monomers (opposite of a dehydration reaction). A variety of hydrolytic enzymes catalyze the digestion of each of the classes of macromolecules found in food. Absorption The process through which animal cells absorb small molecules from the digestive compartment Elimination When undigested matter passes out of the digestive compartment. Food Vacuoles Cellular organelles in which hydrolytic enzymes break down food without digesting the cells cytoplasm. They are the simplest digestive compartments. Intracellular Digestion Digestion within a cell. Begins after a cell engulfs food via phagocytosis or pinocytosis. The newly formed food vacuoles then fuse with lysosomes that mix the food and hydrolytic enzymes allowing for digestion to occur safely. Sponges digest solely in this way Extracellular Digestion The breakdown of food outside the cells. Occurs within compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal's body. Extracellular Digestive Cavity The extracellular digestive cavity allows animals to eat much larger prey. Gastrovascular Cavity A digestive sac with a single opening that functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients throughout the body. EXAMPLE: Hydras-they use cnidae to capture prey and use tentacles to stuff prey into their gastrovascular cavity. The walls of the cavity then secrete digestive enzymes and other cells engulf these food particles. After digestion has occurred, the useless crap gets expelled through the other opening Gastrodermis The tissue layer that lines the gastrovascular cavity and holds the glands that secrete hydrolytic enzymes for the digestion of food. Nutritive Muscle Cells The cells in the gastrovascular cavity that absorb the food through pinocytosis or phagocytosis Complete Digestive Tract A digestive tract that has two openings, a mouth and an anus. Because of this, food must move down the digestive tract in a single direction. The tract is organized into specialized regions that carry out the digestive process in a step wise function. Herbivores will have longer ones because vegetation is harder to digest. Alimentary Canal Another word for a complete digestive tract Mammalian Digestive System The mammalian digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and the many accessory glands that secrete digestive juices into the canal through ducts. Peristalsis Rhythmic waves of contractions by smooth muscles in the wall of the canal that push food along the tract. Sphincters Ring like muscular structures that are located at some junctions between specialized sections of the alimentary canal. They can close of the tube like drawstrings to regulate the passage of materials between chambers of the canal Salivary Glands Accessory glands of the mammalian digestive system. There are three pairs. They are exocrine glands associated with the oral cavity. Their secretions lubricate the food, adhere the food into a bolus and begin chemical digestion Pancreas A gland with dual functions. The nonendocrine portion secretes digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine Liver The largest organ in the vertebrate body. In digestion, it produces bile Gall Bladder An organ that stores bile and releases it as needed to the small intestine Oral Cavity The mouth of an animal. When food is present, the salivary glands deliver saliva into the oral cavity Mucin A glycoprotein that is found in saliva and protects the lining of the mouth form abrasions and lubricates the food for easier swallowing. It also contains buffers that neutralize acids in the mouth and antibacterial agents that kill the grossness. Salivary Amylase An enzyme found in saliva that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen Bolus A ball of food formed by the tongue Epiglottis A cartilaginous flap that blocks the opening to the windpipe to ensure that food cannot come down it. Esophagus The tube that conducts the food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis. Stomach The large organ located in the upper abdominal cavity that stores food and performs the preliminary steps of digestion. It has folds and an elastic wall that allow it to stretch to accommodate up to 2 L in food and fluid. It secretes gastric juice and churns the food to aid in digestion. The stomach is closed off at both end, as the epiglottis is only opened when food arrives, Gastric Juice A digestive fluid secreted by the epithelial lining of the stomach. It has a lot of hydrochloric acid and a pH of 2. It also kills most bacteria and contains pepsin. Pepsin An enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of proteins. Breaks peptide bonds adjacent to specific amino acids to cleave the proteins into small polypeptides to be digested later in the small intestine. It works best in a strongly acidic environment, as this environment denatures most proteins and exposes their bonds to pepsin. Pepsinogen The inactive form of pepsin released by gastric pits. It is converted into pepsin after acid removes a small part of the molecule and exposes its active site. Once it is activated, the active form of pepsinogen codes for more pepsinogen to be activated Interior of the Stomach The interior of the stomach is highly folded and dotted with puts that lead into tubular gastric glands. The mucus layer of the stomach is regenerated every 3 days. The stomach contents are mixed by the churning of the stomach every 20 seconds. Gastric Gland A gland that has three types of cell, each that secretes three different components of gastric juice. The pit itself secretes gastric juice Mucus Cell This kind of cell secretes mucus to lubricate and protect the cells lining the stomach Chief Cell This kind of cell secretes pepsinogen, an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin. Parietal Cell This kind of cell secretes HCl, which activates pepsinogen and turns it into pepsin Acid Chyme The nutrient rich broth found in the stomach Heartburn The backflow of acid chyme up the lower portion of the esophagus Pyloric Sphincter An opening from the stomach to the small intestine. Helps regulate the passage of chyme into the intestine Small Intestine The longest section of the alimentary canal, at 6 m long. It has a small diameter, but an immense surface area. Most of the enzymatic hydrolysis of food and the absorption of the nutrients into the blood occurs here Duodenum The first portion of the small intestine. Acid chyme from the stomach mixes with bile from the other glands here, such as bicarbonate from the pancreas to offset the acidity. Bile Produces by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It is a mixture of substances, that contains no digestive enzymes but bile salts and pigments that are by products of red blood cell distribution. Brush Border The epithelial lining of the duodenum. The source of several digestive enzymes. Villi Finger like projections in the folds of the small intestine that increase the surface area and have microvilli Microvilli Microscopic appendages on the villi that are exposed to the intestinal lumen CCK A hormone whose release is triggered by the present of amino or fatty acids in the duodenum. It stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas Secretin A hormone secreted by the duodenum to signal the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate to buffer the acid chyme Gastrin A hormone from the stomach that stimulates the production of gastric juice. Once leaving, it recirculates back to the stomach via the blood stream Enterogastrone A hormone secreted by the duodenum to stop acid secretion and peristalsis by the stomach and slowing digestion by restricting how much acid chyme can enter the small intestine Lacteal A small vessel of the lymphatic system found in the net of capillaries in the microvilli After Digestion. After digestion, nutrients are absorbed by cells through passive transport (like with sugar) or active transport (like vitamins)-active transport allows cells to accumulate more of the nutrients they need.Amino acids and sugars are carried away in the blood stream while fatty acids are recombined into fats within the cells Chylomicrons Small fat balls covered in proteins that are transported into the lacteal. Hepatic Portal Vein The blood vessel that leads directly to the liver and ensure that the liver, which has metabolic versatility, has first access to necessary nutrients Colon Also known as the large intestine. Connected to the small intestine at a T-shaped junction to control the movement of material. Its purpose is to recover water lost during the digestive process. Over 7L of fluid are reabsorbed by the digestive tract. Cecum One arm of the T-shaped pouch connecting the large and small intestine Appendix A fingerlike offshoot of the cecum that is pretty much useless Feces The waste of the digestive tract. Become more solid as they move through the colon. Contain masses of bacteria and undigested material. E. coli An inhabitant of the colon that aids in the digestive process. Rectum The terminal portion of the colon, where feces are stored until they can be eliminated. Has two sphincters, one voluntary and one involuntary Dentition An animal's assortment of teeth. An example of structural variation reflecting diet. Fangs Modified teeth that inject venom into prey Symbiosis in Digestion Many animals lack the enzymes that hydrolyze cellulose. To conquer this, they house large populations of symbiotic bacteria and protists that work in fermentation chambers along their alimentary canal. These microorganisms can digest cellulose into compounds the animals can use, but their location can vary amongst different species. Ruminants Animals will elaborate adaptations for a herbivorous diet. If you continue browsing the site, you agree to the use of cookies on this website. See our User Agreement and Privacy Policy.If you continue browsing the site, you agree to the use of cookies on this website. See our Privacy Policy and User Agreement for details.You can change your ad preferences anytime. Why not share! For the Discovery Video Nutrition, go to Animation and Video Files. Now customize the name of a clipboard to store your clips. Although fat hoarding is a health liability today, it may have been advantageous in our evolutionary past. If you're having any problems, or would like to give some feedback, we'd love to hear from you. Be sure to include which edition of the textbook you are using. If we see enough demand, we'll do whatever we can to get those notes up on the site for you. The current custom error settings for this application prevent the details of the application error from being viewed remotely (for security reasons). It could, however, be viewed by browsers running on the local server machine. It can also be pretty intimidating. However, we’re going to look at the light side: biology jokes. We definitely need to insert humor into biology. However, not literally into our biology. Understanding How Solvents Break the Barrier April 1, 2020 Are you getting ready for your first biology class. Or are you trying to shake off the cobwebs and remember your biology from years ago. Either way, you may be asking, what is osmosis in biology. We want to answer this question in a way that is thorough and understandable at the same time. So much so, that it can also be overwhelming if you don't have a pre-determined focus. If you're having any problems, or would like to give some feedback, we'd love to hear from you. Be sure to include which edition of the textbook you are using. If we see enough demand, we'll do whatever we can to get those notes up on the site for you. Read More We played both the Sea Side Course as well as the Plantation Course. Not only was the golf great with amazing views, but the service we received was impeccable. The food was delicious and the accommodations were incredible. We wanted to make it a yearly trip, but we were unable to sync our schedules in order to make another trip happen. Sadly, one of my brothers passed away in December of 2017. While we will never be able to have a brother's trip with all of us together we do have some incredible memories that were created there at Sea Island and I am forever grateful for those memories. Even for New Yorkers, it was usually too cold. One year, our daughter Laura got it into her head that she wanted to learn how to do a backflip off the diving board. One of the ever patient Sea Island lifeguards spent a few minutes helping her and before we knew it she'd taught Laura how to do a backflip. Laura spent the rest of the trip perfecting her dive in that freezing cold pool having the time of her life. She went on to become a championship diver back home - all thanks to Sea Island. Luckily, we caught a picture of the first time she nailed it in the diving pool at the old Beach Club. Our boys would usually fall asleep on the walk back home along the beach. One day, Bobby was awake and got all excited when he saw a yellow stuffed duck with a fleece blanket body laying in the sand. He wanted to take it home but I said it belonged to someone and they may be looking for it. Everyday, he'd run out to see if the duck was there. Days passed and the duck was still unclaimed, covered in sand, smelly and dirtier than ever. We took him home, washed him up and he was just like new. That night Bob had his Easter picture taken on the table in the Cloister Lobby with his new best friend, Duckie. To say we fell in love would be the biggest understatement of the century. We promised ourselves we would return as often as we could, but naturally life happened. I got pregnant with our second which we sadly lost, my brother found his amazing future wife and we couldn’t make it the following summer.We couldn’t wait. Then out of nowhere, we learned a baby girl was on the way for us.If I wasn’t in tennis clinics, I spent a lot of time watching my f. Read More If I wasn’t in tennis clinics, I spent a lot of time watching my father, Mike Mills, play the game he loved so much. He played twice a day some days. Also organized tournaments with his large group of friends who would meet up in Sea Island every summer (Month of July). They even created their own trophies and called it the “Sea Island Cup”. My dad passed away almost 9 years ago. I’m entering this memory and photo in his honor. The year was 1979 and my father (in yellow shorts) is pictured with one of his best friends, Charlie. Sea Island was such a special place to him and our family. And Sea Island tennis was one of his best times. My memories are clear as day.a rustic setting, the wonderful southern music, hush puppies, and wandering free through the greenery and shrubbery.and of course, the Jeep train. I am a third generation Sea Island cottage owner, currently sharing the magic with our children, the fourth McBride generation!! They love to talk about what they refer to as “The Old Cloister” and how there were no TVs in the rooms! They remember the attention to details Sea Island offers, like how everyone used to gather around the fireplace at night for milk and cookies. So naturally, when my husband and I were searching for an anniversary trip destination or weekend getaway, we chose Sea Island. It has always exceeded expectations and it’s fun to compare memories with my parents. We love the idea of keeping tradition. We would like to add a family trip with our boys sooner than later in hopes they will love it like we do! My husband and I have traveled many places over the years but Sea Island is honestly a place we hold very close to our hearts.