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the idiots guide to the illuminati by collective conciousness

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the idiots guide to the illuminati by collective conciousnessBenjamin Aghoghovwia Muscle is derived from the Latin word “musculus” meaning “little mouse”. The muscle cell, muscle fibre, contains protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, producing contractions that move body parts, including internal organs. Associated connective tissue binds muscle fibres into fascicles or bundles, and these associated connective tissues also convey nerve fibres and blood vessels (capillaries) to the muscle cells. Although muscles produce heat energy, they also require energy to perform their functions. Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used. These chemical reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that are used up by myosin filaments during muscle contractions. There are three types of muscles. They are the: Based on this microscopic classification, skeletal and cardiac muscles are grouped as striated muscles, while the visceral muscle is non-striated. Development Myoblasts (embryonic muscle cells) are derived from mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue). Muscle contraction, generated by actin and the motor protein, myosin, facilitates movement and drives physiologic processes including circulation, respiration, and digestion. Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues develop from local populations of mesenchymal cells ( splanchnic mesoderm ), while skeletal muscles develop from mesoderm within the somites. These cells become committed muscle precursor cells, or myoblasts, which fuse to form multinucleated myotubes that consist of terminally differentiated muscle cells. Many of the molecular mechanisms that regulate embryonic muscle cell proliferation and differentiation are thought to be reactivated during adult muscle regeneration. For example, Wnt signaling can induce satellite cell proliferation and myoblast fusion. Skeletal muscle Hence the larger the skeletal muscle cell, the more nuclei it contains.http://www.dasita.com/files/delltm-latitudetm-d620-service-manual.xml

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Skeletal muscles consist of non-branching fibres (unlike cardiac) bound together by loose areolar tissue containing the usual complement of cells such as fibroblasts and macrophages. The membranous envelope, or epimysium, is impervious to the spread of fluid such as pus. The small muscles of the eye may contain only a few hundred cells, while the vastus lateralis of the thigh may contain hundreds of thousands of muscle cells. The shape of muscle is dependent on its general architecture, which in turn helps to define the muscle’s function. Some muscles, such as the gluteal muscles, are quite thick; some, such as the sartorius of the thigh, are long and relatively slender; and others, such as the extensors of the fingers, have very long tendons. These differences in muscle shape and architecture permit skeletal muscle to function effectively over a relatively wide range of tasks. This difference in fascicular arrangement also accounts for the different shapes and functional capabilities of various skeletal muscles. The fascicular pattern is circular when the fascicles are arranged in concentric rings. Muscles with this arrangement surround external body openings, which they close by contracting. Examples include the orbicularis muscles surrounding the mouth and eyes. Such a muscle is triangular or fan shaped. One example is the pectoralis major muscle of the anterior thorax. There are three types of parallel muscles: An example is the pectoralis major muscle Pennate muscles are of three forms: The tendon is central giving the muscle a resemblance of a feather. The rectus femoris of the thigh is bipennate; The deltoid muscle, which forms the roundness of the shoulder is multipennate. Some are attached to organs (the eyeball, for example), to skin (such as facial muscles), and to mucous membrane (e.g. the intrinsic tongue muscles ). Skeletal muscles produce movements of the skeleton and other body parts.http://adler-hudozhka.ru/pic/delonghi-bean-to-cup-manual.xml For example, the diaphragm contracts automatically; a person controls it voluntarily, however, when taking a deep breath. Skeletal muscles are striated. Skeletal muscles attach to bones with their tendons. Some tendons form flat sheets called aponeuroses that anchor one muscle to another, for example, the oblique muscles of the anterolateral abdominal wall. Cardiac muscle The cardiac muscle consists of much broader, shorter cells that branch. Part of the boundary membranes of adjacent cardiac muscle cells make very elaborate interdigitations (branchings) with one another under microscopic examination. This broadness, and the interdigitations of the cardiac muscle increase its surface area for impulse conduction. The muscle cells are arranged in whorls and spirals; each chamber of the heart empties by mass contraction, not peristalsis. Unlike the smooth muscles, cardiac muscle fibres are striated (striped appearance) and are joined to one another, end to end by cell junctions formed by intercalated discs. Some cardiac muscles are also present in the walls of the aorta, pulmonary vein, and superior vena cava (SVC). Heart rate is regulated intrinsically by a pacemaker (the SA node ) composed of special cardiac muscle fibres that are also influenced and innervated by the ANS. Smooth muscle Smooth muscle consists of narrow spindle-shaped cells usually lying parallel. In hollow organs undergo peristalsis (anterograde directional movement), they are arranged in longitudinal and circular fashion, e.g., as in the alimentary canal and ureter. Contractile impulses are transmitted from one muscle cell to another at specialized sites called nexuses (or gap junctions), where adjacent cell membranes lie unusually close together. They are also found in the eyeball, where it controls lens thickness and pupil size. In addition, because of the gap junctions between smooth muscle cells, many of the cells do not receive nerve fibres.http://www.bouwdata.net/evenement/boss-gt-pro-manuale-italiano They are rare disorders, affecting only about one in 100,000 people per year. More women than men are affected. Although the peak age of onset is in the 50s, the disorders can occur at any age. The affected muscles are close to the trunk (as opposed to in the wrists or feet), involving for example the hip, shoulder, or neck muscles. Muscles on both sides of the body are equally affected. In some cases, muscles are sore or tender. In some cases, the muscles of the pharynx (throat) or the esophagus (the tube leading from the throat to the stomach ) are involved, causing problems with swallowing. In some cases, this leads to food being misdirected from the esophagus to the lungs, causing severe pneumonia. Muscular dystrophy Muscular dystrophies are characterized by progressive skeletal muscle weakness, defects in muscle proteins, and the death of muscle fibres (muscle cells) and tissue. The prefix, dys-, means abnormal, while the root, -trophy, refers to maintaining normal nourishment, structure and function. The most common form in children is called Duchenne muscular dystrophy and affects only males. It usually appears between the ages of 2 to 6 and the afflicted live typically into late teens to early 20s. Muscle atrophy People with sedentary jobs and senior citizens with decreased activity can lose muscle tone and develop significant atrophy. This type of atrophy is reversible with vigorous exercise. Bed-ridden people can undergo significant muscle wasting. Astronauts, free of the gravitational pull of Earth, can develop decreased muscle tone and loss of calcium from their bones following just a few days of weightlessness. It has also been referred to as a sleep start. There has been little research on this topic, but there have been some theories put forth. Hypnic jerks may be the result of muscle changes. Another theory suggests that the transition from the waking to the sleeping state signals the body to relax.http://ibeamsc.com/images/96-saturn-sl2-owners-manual.pdf But the brain may interpret the relaxation as a sign of falling and then signal the arms and legs to wake up. Electroencephalogram studies have shown sleep starts affect almost 10 percent of the population regularly, 80 percent occasionally, and another 10 percent rarely. This also is the time when dreams occur. During the REM phase, all voluntary muscular activity stops with a drop in muscle tone, but some individuals may experience slight eyelid or ear twitching or slight jerks. Some people with REM behavioral disorder, or RBD, may experience more violent muscular twitching and full-fledged activity during sleep. This is because they do not achieve muscle paralysis, and as a result, act out their dreams. History of Exercise Physiology, (2014) p. 337 All rights reserved.We're here to help. The many nuclei in each cell (multinucleated cells) are located near the outside along the plasma membrane, which is called the sarcolemma. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and causes movements of the body. Because it is under conscious control, it is also called voluntary muscle. However, cardiac muscle cells have a single, centrally located nucleus, and the muscle fibers branch often. Where two cardiac muscle cells meet, they form an intercalated disc containing gap junctions, which bridge the two cells. Cardiac cells are the only cells that pulsate in rhythm. The cells are elongated with tapered ends and do not appear striated. Smooth muscle lines the walls of blood vessels and certain organs such as the digestive and urogenital tracts, where it serves to advance the movement of substances. Smooth muscle is called involuntary muscle because it is not under direct conscious control. Muscle is classified into three types according to their structure and function: The repeating arrangement of their basic contractile unit, the sarcomere, produces these striations. The uniform, nonstriated appearance gives rise to the name smooth muscle. We'll bring you back here when you are done. Please select the correct language below. Find out how you can intelligently organize your Flashcards. Please upgrade to Cram Premium to create hundreds of folders! Hint: ECEE Ex: Biceps Brachii Ex: Triceps brachii Ex: Deltoid muscle Ex: Pectoralis muscle. At the simplest level, muscles allow us to move. Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle move to facilitate body functions like heartbeats and digestion. The movement of these muscles is directed by the autonomic part of the nervous system—those are the nerves that control organs. Learn how many muscles are in the body, how skeletal muscle attaches to bone and moves bones, and which organs include smooth muscles. See our privacy policy for additional details. Muscle cells are excitable; they respond to a stimulus. They are contractile, meaning they can shorten and generate a pulling force. When attached between two movable objects, in other words, bones, contractions of the muscles cause the bones to move. Some muscle movement is voluntary, which means it is under conscious control. For example, a person decides to open a book and read a chapter on anatomy. Other movements are involuntary, meaning they are not under conscious control, such as the contraction of your pupil in bright light. Muscle tissue is classified into three types according to structure and function: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth ( (Figure) ). Forty percent of your body mass is made up of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscles generate heat as a byproduct of their contraction and thus participate in thermal homeostasis. Shivering is an involuntary contraction of skeletal muscles in response to perceived lower than normal body temperature. The muscle cell, or myocyte, develops from myoblasts derived from the mesoderm. Myocytes and their numbers remain relatively constant throughout life. Skeletal muscle tissue is arranged in bundles surrounded by connective tissue. Under the light microscope, muscle cells appear striated with many nuclei squeezed along the membranes. The striation is due to the regular alternation of the contractile proteins actin and myosin, along with the structural proteins that couple the contractile proteins to connective tissues. The cells are multinucleated as a result of the fusion of the many myoblasts that fuse to form each long muscle fiber. The cells of cardiac muscle, known as cardiomyocytes, also appear striated under the microscope. Unlike skeletal muscle fibers, cardiomyocytes are single cells typically with a single centrally located nucleus. A principal characteristic of cardiomyocytes is that they contract on their own intrinsic rhythms without any external stimulation. Cardiomyocyte attach to one another with specialized cell junctions called intercalated discs. Intercalated discs have both anchoring junctions and gap junctions. Attached cells form long, branching cardiac muscle fibers that are, essentially, a mechanical and electrochemical syncytium allowing the cells to synchronize their actions. The cardiac muscle pumps blood through the body and is under involuntary control. The attachment junctions hold adjacent cells together across the dynamic pressures changes of the cardiac cycle. It forms the contractile component of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems as well as the airways and arteries. Each cell is spindle shaped with a single nucleus and no visible striations ( (Figure) ). In looking through a microscope how could you distinguish skeletal muscle tissue from smooth muscle? Their morphologies match their specific functions in the body. Skeletal muscle is voluntary and responds to conscious stimuli. The cells are striated and multinucleated appearing as long, unbranched cylinders. Cardiac muscle is involuntary and found only in the heart. Each cell is striated with a single nucleus and they attach to one another to form long fibers. Cells are attached to one another at intercalated disks. The cells are interconnected physically and electrochemically to act as a syncytium. Cardiac muscle cells contract autonomously and involuntarily. Smooth muscle is involuntary. Each cell is a spindle-shaped fiber and contains a single nucleus. No striations are evident because the actin and myosin filaments do not align in the cytoplasm. In looking through a microscope how could you distinguish skeletal muscle tissue from smooth muscle? Which organelles do you expect to find in abundance in skeletal muscle cell? They are all contracting at different rates; some fast, some slow. After a while, several cells link up and they begin contracting in synchrony. Discuss what is going on and what type of cells you are looking at. They have an intrinsic ability to contract. When they link up, they form intercalating discs that allow the cells to communicate with each other and begin contracting in synchrony. Muscle tissue is classified into three types according to structure and function: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth ( Table 4.2 ). Forty percent of your body mass is made up of skeletal muscle. Each cell is spindle shaped with a single nucleus and no visible striations ( Figure 4.18 ). In looking through a microscope how could you distinguish skeletal muscle tissue from smooth muscle? This book is Creative Commons Attribution LicenseWe recommend using aExcept where otherwise noted, textbooks on this site. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Most of the body’s skeletal muscle produces movement by acting on the skeleton. Cardiac muscle is found in the wall of the heart and pumps blood through the circulatory system. There are three layers of connective tissue: epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium. Skeletal muscle fibers are organized into groups called fascicles. Blood vessels and nerves enter the connective tissue and branch in the cell. Muscles attach to bones directly or through tendons or aponeuroses. Skeletal muscles maintain posture, stabilize bones and joints, control internal movement, and generate heat. The membrane of the cell is the sarcolemma; the cytoplasm of the cell is the sarcoplasm. The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a form of endoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fibers are composed of myofibrils. The striations are created by the organization of actin and myosin resulting in the banding pattern of myofibrils. Myofibrils are composed of thick and thin filaments. Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin; thin filaments are composed of the protein actin. Troponin and tropomyosin are regulatory proteins. ACh is the neurotransmitter that binds at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) to trigger depolarization, and an action potential travels along the sarcolemma to trigger calcium release from SR. The cross-bridging of myposin heads docking into actin-binding sites is followed by the “power stroke”—the sliding of the thin filaments by thick filaments. The power strokes are powered by ATP. Ultimately, the sarcomeres, myofibrils, and muscle fibers shorten to produce movement. The length of a sarcomere is optimal when the zone of overlap between thin and thick filaments is greatest. Muscles that are stretched or compressed too greatly do not produce maximal amounts of power. A motor unit is formed by a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers that are innervated by that same motor neuron. A single contraction is called a twitch. A muscle twitch has a latent period, a contraction phase, and a relaxation phase. A graded muscle response allows variation in muscle tension. Summation occurs as successive stimuli are added together to produce a stronger muscle contraction. Tetanus is the fusion of contractions to produce a continuous contraction. Increasing the number of motor neurons involved increases the amount of motor units activated in a muscle, which is called recruitment. Muscle tone is the constant low-level contractions that allow for posture and stability. The three mechanisms for ATP regeneration are creatine phosphate, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic metabolism. Creatine phosphate provides about the first 15 seconds of ATP at the beginning of muscle contraction. Anaerobic glycolysis produces small amounts of ATP in the absence of oxygen for a short period. Aerobic metabolism utilizes oxygen to produce much more ATP, allowing a muscle to work for longer periods. Muscle fatigue, which has many contributing factors, occurs when muscle can no longer contract. An oxygen debt is created as a result of muscle use. The three types of muscle fiber are slow oxidative (SO), fast oxidative (FO) and fast glycolytic (FG). SO fibers use aerobic metabolism to produce low power contractions over long periods and are slow to fatigue. FO fibers use aerobic metabolism to produce ATP but produce higher tension contractions than SO fibers. FG fibers use anaerobic metabolism to produce powerful, high-tension contractions but fatigue quickly. The opposite of hypertrophy is atrophy, the loss of muscle mass due to the breakdown of structural proteins. Endurance exercise causes an increase in cellular mitochondria, myoglobin, and capillary networks in SO fibers. Endurance athletes have a high level of SO fibers relative to the other fiber types. Resistance exercise causes hypertrophy. Power-producing muscles have a higher number of FG fibers than of slow fibers. Strenuous exercise causes muscle cell damage that requires time to heal. Some athletes use performance-enhancing substances to enhance muscle performance. Muscle atrophy due to age is called sarcopenia and occurs as muscle fibers die and are replaced by connective and adipose tissue. Cardiac muscle fibers have a single nucleus, are branched, and joined to one another by intercalated discs that contain gap junctions for depolarization between cells and desmosomes to hold the fibers together when the heart contracts. Pacemaker cells stimulate the spontaneous contraction of cardiac muscle as a functional unit, called a syncytium. Smooth muscle cells have a single nucleus, and are spindle-shaped. Smooth muscle cells can undergo hyperplasia, mitotically dividing to produce new cells. The smooth cells are nonstriated, but their sarcoplasm is filled with actin and myosin, along with dense bodies in the sarcolemma to anchor the thin filaments and a network of intermediate filaments involved in pulling the sarcolemma toward the fiber’s middle, shortening it in the process. Smooth muscle can be stimulated by pacesetter cells, by the autonomic nervous system, by hormones, spontaneously, or by stretching. The fibers in some smooth muscle have latch-bridges, cross-bridges that cycle slowly without the need for ATP; these muscles can maintain low-level contractions for long periods. Single-unit smooth muscle tissue contains gap junctions to synchronize membrane depolarization and contractions so that the muscle contracts as a single unit. Single-unit smooth muscle in the walls of the viscera, called visceral muscle, has a stress-relaxation response that permits muscle to stretch, contract, and relax as the organ expands. Multiunit smooth muscle cells do not possess gap junctions, and contraction does not spread from one cell to the next. Somites give rise to myoblasts and fuse to form a myotube. The nucleus of each contributing myoblast remains intact in the mature skeletal muscle cell, resulting in a mature, multinucleate cell. Satellite cells help to repair skeletal muscle cells. Smooth muscle tissue can regenerate from stem cells called pericytes, whereas dead cardiac muscle tissue is replaced by scar tissue. Aging causes muscle mass to decrease and be replaced by noncontractile connective tissue and adipose tissue. This book is Creative Commons Attribution LicenseWe recommend using aExcept where otherwise noted, textbooks on this site. Healthy skeletal muscle harbors a robust regenerative response that becomes inadequate after large muscle loss or in degenerative pathologies and aging. In contrast, the mammalian heart loses its regenerative capacity shortly after birth, leaving it susceptible to permanent damage by acute injury or chronic disease. In this review, we compare and contrast the physiology and regenerative potential of native skeletal and cardiac muscles, mechanisms underlying striated muscle dysfunction, and bioengineering strategies to treat muscle disorders. We focus on different sources for cellular therapy, biomaterials to augment the endogenous regenerative response, and progress in engineering and application of mature striated muscle tissues in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we discuss the challenges and perspectives in translating muscle bioengineering strategies to clinical practice. Keywords: muscle, cardiac, skeletal, tissue engineering, stem cells, iPS Introduction The body possesses two types of striated muscle, cardiac and skeletal. Striated muscles are required for whole-body oxygen supply, metabolic balance, and locomotion. While structurally and functionally similar, the two striated muscles have vastly different sizes and regenerative capacities. In this review, we first discuss the structure, function, and regenerative potential of healthy striated muscles, representing the desired outcome of any cell, biomaterial, drug, or gene therapy for muscle disorders. We then review the progress made with cellular therapies, where immature cells are directly delivered in vivo, as well as cell-free therapies where biomaterials are implanted to augment and replicate the natural repair capacity of muscle tissue. Lastly, we review recent developments in engineering mature striated muscle tissues in vitro and highlight the hurdles that need to be overcome to translate these promising approaches to the clinic. Striated muscle structure and function Striated muscles are highly organized tissues ( Fig. 1 ) that convert chemical energy to physical work. The primary function of striated muscles is to generate force and contract in order to support respiration, locomotion, and posture (skeletal muscle) and to pump blood throughout the body (cardiac muscle). Open in a separate window Fig. 1 Structure and function of striated muscles A) Adult skeletal muscle contains uniformly aligned, long multinucleated myofibers, blood vessels, and resident satellite cells, with fewer fibroblasts relative to cardiac muscle. B) Adult cardiac muscle consists of a branched network of shorter cardiomyocytes connected via intercalated discs and surrounded by blood vessels and extracellular matrix secreted primarily by fibroblasts. Calcium is pumped back into the SR via the SR-ATP-ase (SERCA1a). Calcium is pumped back into the SR via the SR-ATP-ase (SERCA2a). E) Tetanic responses of slow and fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibers showing increased ability to recover from fast-paced stimulation in fast-twitch fibers. F) Comparison of active and passive tension-length relationships in cardiac and skeletal muscle. Both striated muscles exhibit stronger active (contractile) force with increased muscle length followed by decay at higher levels of stretch (Frank-Starling relationship). While skeletal muscle operates close to the peak of its active force-length curve, cardiac muscle operates at the ascending limb of the curve to allow more forceful contraction at larger diastolic filling. Simultaneously, passive tension of cardiac muscle at its operating length is markedly higher than that of skeletal muscle, primarily due to higher stiffness of titin molecules within the sarcomeres. G) Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle can propagate action potentials (APs) between myocytes that are connected via gap junctions. Schematic depicts an isochrone map showing AP propagation through cardiac muscle, from which conduction velocity can be measured. H) Positive force-frequency relationship of cardiac muscle demonstrating increased force production at higher excitation rates. All types of striated muscle contain a branched network of membrane invaginations called T-tubules that enable synchronous calcium release throughout the entire cell volume. The T-tubules contact the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) between the A and I bands in skeletal muscle and at the Z-disc in cardiac muscle. In skeletal muscle the T-tubule meets with 2 terminal cisternae to form a triad, but only with a single terminal cisternae in cardiac muscle to form a diad. The triads enable sufficient supply of calcium from SR to sustain tetanic contractions. Individual skeletal muscle fibers arise from the fusion of many muscle cells, producing multi-nucleated linear fibers, millimeters to centimeters in length ( Fig. 1A ). In contrast, cardiac muscle consists of a cellular syncytium wherein individual cells are electromechanically interconnected in a branched pattern via specialized structures known as intercalated discs ( Fig. 1B ). Within the intercalated disc, gap junctions allow for a rapid propagation of electrical impulses ( Fig. 1G ), which results in a near-simultaneous depolarization of the entire cardiac syncytium. Finally, while skeletal muscle fibers are directly innervated by motor neurons, cardiomyocytes are excited via a conduction cascade that begins with specialized pacemaking cells of the sinoatrial node and terminates at the ventricular cardiomyocytes. Skeletal muscle fibers are encased in a basement membrane rich in collagen IV, heparin sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), and laminin, which plays a key role in force transmission to the outer three connective tissue layers, the endo-, peri-, and epimysium. These layers predominantly consist of Type I, II and III collagens synthesized by fibroblasts. Contractile function Skeletal muscle force output is primarily achieved by summation and motor unit recruitment. In contrast, cardiac muscle contracts as a syncytium and obeys an “all-or-none” phenomenon. Lengthening of the muscle increases the overlap of myosin and actin filaments within each sarcomere, which produces a higher contractile force during the power stroke of the contraction cycle. Endogenous striated muscle repair In response to injury, adult skeletal muscle exhibits robust regenerative response that involves a highly orchestrated action of multiple cell types. Subsequently, the SCs undergo activation and differentiation, which is followed by ECM deposition, angiogenesis to revascularize regenerating tissue, and reinnervation of the new myofibers. Open in a separate window Fig. 2 Endogenous and exogenous repair of striated muscles A) Damage to skeletal muscle results in proliferation and migration of satellite cells (SCs) along the longitudinal axis of dying fibers (gray) and initial infiltration of pro-inflammatory M1-macrophages and neutrophils which aids in the degeneration of damaged fibers. Conversion to and infiltration of M2-macrophages stimulates SCs to differentiate and eventually fuse into functional myofibers. B) Ischemic injury to cardiac muscle results in death of cardiomyocytes (CMs), an initial infiltration of neutrophils and upregulation of matrix metalloproteinases. C) Striated muscle repair can be augmented via exogenous delivery of single cells, biomaterials with or without cells, as well as transplantation of in vitro engineered functional muscle tissues.