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mosby s guide to nursing diagnosis 3e early diagnosis inInfection of which of the following tissues is most often fatal in dogs? The function of the heart is to pump blood. The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs, where oxygen is added to the blood. The left side pumps blood to the rest of the body, where oxygen and nutrients are delivered to tissues, and waste products (such as carbon dioxide) are removed. The heart is a hollow, muscular organ which, in mammals and birds, is divided into 4 chambers. The muscular tissue is called the myocardium. There are upper chambers on both the left and ride sides of the heart called the left and right atria (the plural form of atrium). There are also 2 lower chambers called the left and right ventricles. The atrioventricular valves are valves between the atria and the ventricles. The semilunar valves are valves between the heart and the aorta and between the heart and the pulmonary artery. Each ventricle has an inlet and an outlet valve. In the left ventricle, the inlet valve is called the mitral valve, and the outlet valve is called the aortic valve. In the right ventricle, the inlet valve is called the tricuspid valve, and the outlet valve is called the pulmonary valve. When the right ventricle relaxes, blood in the right atrium pours through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle is nearly full, the right atrium contracts, pushing additional blood into the right ventricle. The right ventricle then contracts, pushing blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries, which lead to the lungs. In the lungs, blood absorbs oxygen and gives up carbon dioxide. The blood then flows through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. When the left ventricle relaxes, the blood in the left atrium pours through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. When the left ventricle is nearly full, the left atrium contracts, pushing additional blood into the left ventricle.
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The left ventricle then contracts, pushing blood through the aortic valve into the aorta, the largest artery in the body. This blood carried in the aorta distributes oxygen to all of the body except the lungs. One half of a heartbeat (diastole) is the sound of the mitral and tricuspid valves closing. The other half (systole) is the sound of the aortic and pulmonary valves closing. During diastole, the ventricles relax and fill with blood. During systole, they contract and pump blood out to the body. The sinoatrial node is the heart’s natural pacemaker. Rhythmic electrical impulses or discharges from the sinoatrial node cause the contraction of muscle fibers in the heart. While an animal is at rest, the sinoatrial node discharges many times each minute; in a resting cat, it will discharge more than 120 times per minute. When blood pressure increases, heart rate decreases; when blood pressure decreases, heart rate increases. In heart failure, nerve endings that are sensitive to blood pressure changes (called baroreceptors) report the lower blood pressure to the brain, resulting in an inappropriately elevated heart rate. Unfortunately, this further injures the heart. They can be heard using a stethoscope. In cats, 2 heart sounds can normally be distinguished. Murmurs are typically described by their timing (that is, whether they occur during diastole, systole, or continuously), their intensity (that is, whether they can be heard easily or with difficulty), and their location. Not every murmur indicates a heart disorder; for example, innocent murmurs are sometimes detected in healthy kittens less than 3 months of age. An arrhythmia does not necessarily indicate heart disease. Many arrhythmias are functionally insignificant and require no specific treatment. Some arrhythmias, however, may cause severe signs (such as loss of consciousness due to lack of blood flow to the brain) or lead to sudden death. Many disorders are associated with abnormal heart rhythms. Common findings in animals with an arrhythmia are a rate that is too slow (bradycardia), a rate that is too fast (tachycardia), premature beats (a beat that is heard too early), an irregular rhythm, and pauses in the rhythm. If an abnormal rhythm is heard with a stethoscope, your veterinarian may recommend other tests, such as an electrocardiogram or echocardiogram. In cats, pulses are typically felt at the femoral artery (in the thigh). A jugular pulse in the lower neck can be noted in healthy animals. A pulse may be absent, increased (strong), or decreased (weak)—each of which may indicate a specific type of heart disease or defect. From developing new therapies that treat and prevent disease to helping people in need, we are committed to improving health and well-being around the world. The Veterinary Manual was first published in 1955 as a service to the community. The legacy of this great resource continues in the online and mobile app versions today. Each of these includes sixty-three laboratory exercises, three supplemental labs found online, and six cat, or fetal pig, dissection labs in corresponding versions. All versions are written to work well with any anatomy and physiology text.The manuals also feature incredible artwork and photos. Click continue to view and update your selected titles.See tabs below to explore options and pricing. Don't forget, we accept financial aid and scholarship funds in the form of credit or debit cards. Description Description Pricing subject to change at any time.It isn't too good to be true - it's Inclusive Access. Learn more about Inclusive Access here. When your students still want a book but don't want to keep it, McGraw-Hill's Textbook Rental program provides students with our latest editions at our most affordable hardcover prices. Learn more about our Textbook Rental program. Want more information. Our Learning Technology Representatives can help.http://www.statcardsports.com/node/13132 Proven online content integrates seamlessly with our adaptive technology, and helps build student confidence outside of the classroom. It isn't too good to be true - it's Inclusive Access. Learn more about Inclusive Access here. When your students still want a book but don't want to keep it, McGraw-Hill's Textbook Rental program provides students with our latest editions at our most affordable hardcover prices. Learn more about our Textbook Rental program. Want more information. Our Learning Technology Representatives can help. Proven online content integrates seamlessly with our adaptive technology, and helps build student confidence outside of the classroom. For shipments to locations outside of the U.S., only standard shipping is available. All shipping options assumes the product is available and that it will take 24 to 48 hours to process your order prior to shipping.By continuing to browse this site you are agreeing to our use of cookies. Find out more here. On physical examination, he has pale mucous membranes and weak femoral pulses. His complete blood count (CBC) shows a decreased packed cell volume (PCV), decreased mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and decreased mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). His biochemistry panel shows a mildly increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN) level and mildly increased serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) level. Which of the following is the most likely cause of this dog’s anemia? The atrioventricular (mitral and tricuspid) and semilunar (aortic and pulmonic) valves keep blood flowing in one direction through the heart, and valves in large veins keep blood flowing back toward the heart. The rate and force of contraction of the heart and the degree of constriction or dilatation of blood vessels are determined by the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and hormones produced either by the heart and blood vessels (ie, paracrine or autocrine) or at a distance from the heart and blood vessels (ie, endocrine). Illustration by Dr. Gheorghe Constantinescu. Evaluation of the heart is performed via assessment of: The heartbeat originates with a wave of depolarization that begins in the SA node at the juncture of the cranial vena cava and the right atrium. In general, the larger the species, the slower the rate of SA node discharge and the slower the heart rate.This cardioacceleration (positive chronotropic effect) may be blocked by beta-adrenergic blocking agents (eg, propranolol, atenolol, metoprolol, esmolol, carvedilol ). The rate of SA nodal discharge decreases when acetylcholine released by the parasympathetic (vagus) nerves binds to the cholinergic receptors on the SA node (vagal stimulation). This vagally mediated cardiodeceleration (negative chronotropic effect) may be blocked by a parasympatholytic (vagolytic) compound (eg, atropine, glycopyrrolate ). When the SA node discharges and the wave of depolarization traverses the atria via preferential pathways (interatrial, internodal, and atrionodal) toward the atrioventricular (AV) node, the P wave (atriogram) of the ECG is produced. Subsequently, the atria contract, ejecting a small volume of remaining blood into the respective ventricles (atrial kick). Atrial repolarization (T a ) is typically difficult to visualize in small animals due to its low voltage deflection. In addition to variations in vagal tone with respiration, other mechanisms contribute to RSA, including response of the cardiopulmonary and baroreceptors (eg, Frank-Starling mechanism, Bainbridge reflex). Therefore, vagolytic compounds, as well as excitement, pain, fever, and congestive heart failure (CHF), usually abolish or diminish RSA. Heart rate variability synchronized with respirations is a good indicator of cardiac health. It is rare to find an animal that has active CHF with RSA; however, comorbid conditions that increase vagal activity (such as primary respiratory or neurologic disease) may cause RSA to persist. RSA is uncommonly documented in cats in the hospital setting due to their higher sympathetic tone. When blood pressure increases, heart rate decreases; when blood pressure decreases, heart rate increases. This relation is known as Marey's Law and occurs by the following mechanism. When high-pressure arterial baroreceptors in the aortic and carotid sinuses detect increases in blood pressure, they send increased afferent volleys to the medulla oblongata, which increases vagal efferents to the SA node and causes the heart rate to decrease. This results in less vagal efferent signaling. Thus, dogs in CHF have a decrease in heart rate variability and frequently present with an underlying sinus tachycardia. The depolarization then travels rapidly via a specialized conduction system (ie, bundle of His, right and left bundles branches, Purkinje network) to the subendocardium of the ventricles and to the ventricular septum. From these points, it travels slowly through the ventricular myocardium (subendocardial to epicardial in category A species), producing the QRS complex of the ECG (representing ventricular depolarization) with subsequent mechanical ventricular contraction. Animals in category B have more extensive Purkinje fiber networks throughout the ventricular myocardium into the epicardium, thus the wave front does not spread from endocardium to epicardium as in category A mammals. For this reason, chamber enlargement cannot be determined from a base apex lead used for horses and large animals, and the ECG is only used to assess the cardiac rhythm. The delay between the electrical activity visualized on ECG and mechanical function accounts for transmission of impulses, which allows contraction of cardiomyocytes to occur in synchrony. Under rare conditions, there may be depolarization without contraction; this is called electromechanical dissociation. It is a measure of the time it takes for the electrical wave of depolarization to begin at the SA node, traverse the AV node, and reach the ventricles. Factors that speed or slow the rate of discharge of the SA node (chronotropy) also speed or slow conduction through the AV node (dromotropy). Thus, as the heart rate increases, the PR interval shortens; when heart rate slows, the PR interval lengthens. It is affected by electrolyte imbalance (eg, hypo- or hyperkalemia, hypo- or hypercalcemia), myocardial injury, or ventricular enlargement. Repolarization of the atria (Ta wave) is rarely seen, because it occurs during the much larger QRS complex. Occasionally, it can be seen with AV nodal disease (AV block) or in horses with slow heart rates, appearing as a “hammock” after the P wave. In addition, there are three main lead systems used in veterinary medicine for category A mammals: Bailey's hexaxial system (records electrical activity in frontal plane), precordial or chest lead system (records electrical activity in horizontal plane), and bipolar orthogonal system (records electrical activity in all three planes). In category B mammals, a base-apex lead configuration is used. An in-depth review of ECG interpretation is beyond the scope of this discussion. The end-diastolic pressure of the ventricle is determined by the ratio of blood volume and the compliance of the myocardium. Preload is regulated predominantly by low-pressure volume receptors in the heart and large veins. When these receptors are stimulated by an increase in blood volume or by distention of the structures the receptors occupy, the body responds by making more urine and by dilating the veins—an attempt to decrease blood volume and lower the pressures in the veins responsible for venous distention. An increase in end-diastolic volume (preload) stretches the ventricular wall, resulting in a more forceful contraction as per the Frank-Starling mechanism, or Starling's law of the heart. These peptides are natriuretic, relax smooth muscle, and in general oppose vasopressin and angiotensin II. A correlation between BNP and NT-proBNP levels and degree of stretch of the heart has been identified in dogs. The rate of liberation of energy from ATP is determined, in part, by the amount of norepinephrine binding to beta 1 -adrenergic receptors in the myocardium. One of the most important factors in heart failure is the down-regulation (decreased number) of myocardial beta 1 -receptors. The amount of oxygen available for production of this energy is termed the tissue oxygen content. The myocardial oxygen content is a balance between how much oxygen is delivered to the heart minus how much oxygen is consumed by the heart. If pulmonary function is normal and there is sufficient Hgb, coronary blood flow will determine how much oxygen is delivered to the myocardium. Coronary blood flow is determined by the difference in mean pressure between the aorta (normally 100 mm Hg) and the right atrium (normally 5 mm Hg), into which coronary blood empties. Because coronary flow is greatest during diastole, slower heart rates (which preferentially increase diastolic interval) are associated with improved myocardial oxygen delivery. It is determined, principally, by wall tension and heart rate. Wall tension is expressed by the law of LaPlace, in which tension increases with increases in pressure or diameter of the ventricle, and tension decreases with increases in wall thickness of the ventricle. Tension increases with conditions that increase afterload (pressure), such as pulmonary valve stenosis, subaortic stenosis, systemic or pulmonary hypertension, or preload (volume), including mitral valve insufficiency, left-to-right shunting defects, and dilated cardiomyopathy. In the absence of a stenotic lesion, afterload is determined by the relative stiffness of the arteries and by the degree of constriction of the arterioles. The tone of vascular smooth muscle depends on many factors, some of which constrict the muscle (eg, adrenergic agonists, angiotensin II, vasopressin, endothelin) and some of which relax the muscle (eg, norepinephrine, atriopeptin, bradykinin, adenosine, nitric oxide). Afterload is often increased in heart failure, and therapy is often directed at decreasing it. The combination can set the stage for an imbalance in myocardial oxygen demand and supply, leading to myocardial ischemia. Cardiac failure is characterized by an increase in sympathetic tone and relative increases in heart rate; the ultimate impact is an inefficient myocardium that can result in deleterious remodeling. Calcium must rapidly be released by intracellular stores (sarcoplasmic reticulum) via calcium-induced calcium release to allow for excitation-contraction coupling, while equally rapid removal of calcium back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum is necessary for relaxation. Both processes of calcium cycling are energy dependent. Cardiac output is determined by the heart rate and ventricular stroke volume. Blood flows through the systemic arterial (left ventricular) or pulmonary arterial (right ventricular) trees and is critical to satisfactory function of the heart and consequent perfusion of organs with adequate quantities of blood and the oxygen it contains.The ventricles eject a stroke volume into the proximal portion of the great arteries, which expand to accommodate the stroke volume; when the ventricles are relaxed, the distended great arteries recoil and keep blood moving through the arterioles into the capillaries. The aortic and pulmonic valves close and prevent the stroke volume from returning to the ventricle that ejected it. Pulmonary vascular resistance is increased in cases of pulmonary vascular obstruction or pulmonary hypertension. If the left ventricle is unable to eject a normal stroke volume or cardiac output, it is reasonable that ventricular function might be improved by decreasing vascular resistance. Decreasing afterload (arterial vasodilation) is one therapeutic goal in heart failure therapy. From developing new therapies that treat and prevent disease to helping people in need, we are committed to improving health and well-being around the world. The Merck Veterinary Manual was first published in 1955 as a service to the community. The legacy of this great resource continues as the Merck Veterinary Manual in the US and Canada and the MSD Manual outside of North America. Watch the recordings here on Youtube! Place at least ONE name from your group on the bag. This will ensure your cat will be reunited with your group should it become lost. This will make clean up easier Put a rubber band around the end of the bag (we don’t want to “let the cat out of the bag”) and put the cats back in your hour’s blue container. Arteries are injected with red latex, and veins are injected with blue latex. Blood vessels differ slightly in location from cat to cat. Carefully remove the fascia with blunt instruments to separate blood vessels from other structures. Use a scalpel to make a Y incision in the thoracic cavity, then continue to the abdominal cavity as shown in the diagram. You may need to use pins to hold the skin open for viewing. Use a lab manual to assist you in locating these structures. You do not need to pin them at this point and take care that you do not damage or remove them until you are instructed to (later in the lab.) Identify the atria and ventricle of the heart. Use colored pins to mark the locations as you find them. Locate its branches, the right pulmonary artery and the left pulmonary artery, and follow them to the lungs. Pin this structure. Locate and pin those structures. Locate and pin these structures. Both of these veins return blood to the heart. Pin both the superior and inferior vena cava. Pin the external jugular vein. (The internal may be difficult to locate.) Do not remove organs, instead, gently push them aside and tease away tissue that might be obscuring your view. All vessels you will locate will be directly attached to it, it is the largest artery in the body. Pin the inferior vena cava and the aorta. This small artery then splits into three smaller branches: the hepatic artery which goes to the liver, the gastric artery that goes to the stomach, and the splenic artery that goes to the spleen. Pin the celiac artery and find its branches. This artery is small and easily broken if you are too rough with the intestines. Pin it. The veins are near them and distinguished by a blue color.They supply the testes in males and the ovaries in females. It is also small and fragile and may broken due to moving the intestines around. Place a pin in it. Eventually it will split and form a Y, with the left external iliac going to the left leg and the right external iliac going toward the right leg. The internal iliac artery will go straight toward the tail. Pin each of these arteries. Next to it will be the femoral vein. Pin both. Label each of the bold structures you found above. A careful dissection will reveal structures we have learned in class. Follow the directions step-by-step and answer or sketch where asked. Return any organs you remove to the cat, you made need them for the final lab test. It can be removed so that organs are visible. How many lobes of the liver do you count. Sketch and label them. Sketch each of these structures. Describe the appearance of the diaphragm, to what body system does it belong? Wiggling the stomach may help you find the esophagus. Trace it upwards to where it is visible near the trachea. Describe the difference between the esophagus and the trachea. How can you tell which is which? Often these cats are carrying parasites and can be seen within the stomach or intestines. Describe (or sketch) the inside of the stomach, paying attention to its texture. Investigate the shape of the cardiac sphincter valve and the pyloric sphincter valve. Sketch the stomach, labeling the lesser and greater curvature, the esophagus, and the two sphincter valves. You can also find the spleen laying over the top of the stomach in this area. Describe the appearance of the spleen. Locate the jejunum and the ileum and note where the ileum joins the large intestine at the ileocecal valve. Label each of these structures of the drawing. The mesentery should have small vessels visible within it, these mesenteric vessels connect to the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries. Compare the mesentery to the omentum. Imagine you are describing these two membranes to a person not familiar with the cat; how would you explain how they are different? In cats, the ascending, transverse, and descending colon are present, but much shorter than what is seen in humans. Avoid cutting the rectum of the cat, this will likely contain feces. Sketch and label these structures: Cut the mesentery so that it can be measured.Wiggling the kidneys make help you locate this tube.Kidneys are said to sit “retroperitoneally”. What does this mean. Remove one of the kidneys. What vessels must you cut in order to remove the kidney. Make a longitudinal cut in the kidney and view the cortex and medulla. Draw the renal pyramids.If your cat is a male, locate the testes (if present) and the penis. Find a cat of the opposite sex to see structures your cat doesn't have. Where does the urethra exit the body in the male compared to that of a female cat. Is it possible to tell the difference between males and females from an external view? How? Unless otherwise noted, LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Legal. Have questions or comments. These illustrations should not be downloaded, printed or copied except for personal, non-commercial use. The cardiovascular system performs the function of pumping and carrying blood to the rest of the body. The blood contains nutrients and oxygen to provide energy to allow the cells of the body to perform work. Important terms of cat anatomy are introduced in bold face type, which serves to emphasize them. Going beyond the visual investigation of charts, models, lists of terms, and lectures, dissection engages the student to examine real structures using the additional sense of touch. This practical approach has the potential for opening up new dimensions of learning if it is taught properly, with reverence and respect for life. It is the goal of this guide to present cat dissection in a clear, step-by-step manner in an effort to make the learning experience meaningful and effective. This guide also includes full-color dissection photos. Available in Digital and Interactive Format Assign and customize your lab manual online, administer interactive assessments, and check for student understanding using in-class polling tools. This is powered by bluedoor’s partnership with Top Hat, the leading active learning platform. About the Author Bruce Wingerd has been teaching anatomy and related courses since 1980. He has written numerous textbooks, lab manuals, dissection guides, and multimedia resources in comparative mammalian anatomy, human anatomy, anatomy and physiology, histology, and medical terminology. Request More Information Your Name Email Address School Annual Enrollment Current Lab Manual Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. Ready to Get Started. Contact us to discuss our flexible and affordable digital and print solutions. Your submission has been received. Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form. No Spam Unsubscribe Anytime Powered with lov by Foreword. Would you like to change to the United States site? This is a dummy description.This is a dummy description.This is a dummy description.This is a dummy description.The guide can be used as a stand-alone dissection guide or in conjunction with any Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual. The 13-digit and 10-digit formats both work. Please try again.Please try again.Please try again. These features help readers to retain concepts and terms that they learned in class and then directly apply that knowledge to their work in the laboratory. This lab manual can be used with any human anatomy book available.Then you can start reading Kindle books on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required. In order to navigate out of this carousel please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading. Page 1 of 1 Start over Page 1 of 1 In order to navigate out of this carousel please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading. Register a free business account These features help readers to retain concepts and terms that they learned in class and then directly apply that knowledge to their work in the laboratory. This lab manual can be used with any human anatomy book available.His graduate studies included vertebrate physiology and freshwater ecology. Today he is a professor of Biology at Del Mar College in Corpus Christi, Texas, where he has taught anatomy and physiology and biology for more than 20 years. He has received the “Educator of the Year” and “Teacher of the Year” awards from the Del Mar College student body and from the local business community. Professor Wood is a member of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society. Mike Wood is known for his clear, concise, and accessible writing style and his guiding focus on the student. To calculate the overall star rating and percentage breakdown by star, we don’t use a simple average. Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. It also analyzes reviews to verify trustworthiness. Please try again later. Annie 2.0 out of 5 stars I knew it was used when I rented it but did not expect to get a book that's falling apart. Thinking of returning because of this. This book should not have been sent out in this condition.This manual coincides with every Human Anatomy book written by Frederic Martini and is just what the doctor ordered. Thank you so much and I hope this review can do the company some much-deserved justice.I expedited the shipping and literally received this book in 2 days. It was awesome.Loose leaf stuff is. Meh. By continuing, you're agreeing to use of cookies. We have recently updated our policy. These features help readers to retain concepts and terms that they learned in class and then directly apply that knowledge to their work in the laboratory. This lab manual can be used with any human anatomy book available.Organization of Skeletal Muscles Exercise 11. Axial Muscles Exercise 12. Appendicular Muscles Exercise 13. Organization of the Nervous System Exercise 14. The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves Exercise 15. The Brain and Cranial Nerves Exercise 16. General Senses Exercise 17. Special Senses: Olfaction and Gustation Exercise 18. Special Senses: The Eye Exercise 19. Special Senses: The Ear Exercise 20. The Endocrine System Exercise 21. The Blood Exercise 22. The Heart Exercise 23. Blood Vessels Exercise 24. The Lymphatic System Exercise 25.