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husbandry manual for the maned wolfChrysocyon brachyurus The Maned Wolf SSP produced our first Husbandry and Management Handbook in 1987, 2 years after the MWSSP was formed. Since that time there have been numerous changes in management recommendations resulting from the experiences of maned wolf managers working at institutions throughout North America. In 1993 the MWSSP determined that new information and modifications to practices listed in the original handbook warranted the preparation of an entirely new edition. The Husbandry Handbook Update Committee was formed and work began. The committee consisted of 13 dedicated volunteers representing 13 institutions with a wide variety of experience managing maned wolves. The husbandry handbook guidelines prepared by AZA were used to outline the scope of the work, and committee members signed on to prepare the various chapters. We also relied on the expertise of MWSSP advisors Mary Allen (nutrition), Robyn Barbiers and Mitch Bush (health), Dick Montali (necropsy), and Stephanie Bestelmeyer (behavior ethogram and bibliography). Committee Co-Chairs Norah Fletchall, Assistant Director at John Ball Zoo, and Steve Taylor, Curator of Mammals at Louisville Zoo, have worked diligently and tirelessly to pull this document together. Together with all of the chapter authors, their efforts have resulted in a practical guide representing the current state of knowledge for managing maned wolves in captivity. Changes and updates will be added as needed. Anyone keeping or interested in keeping maned wolves is encouraged to read this document, and to contact any committee member or the species coordinator with questions or comments. Melissa Rodden Maned Wolf SSP Species Coordinator September 1995 Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 3 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editors of this manual would like to thank the members of the committee for their time and dedication to this project.http://iucecb.com/files/et-6000-manual.xml
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We would also like to thank the Little Rock Zoo and the John Ball Zoological Society Wildlife Conservation Fund for their assistance in publishing and distributing the manual. Special thanks to Brian Ballard of the John Ball Zoo for the cover drawing. Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 4 5 Maned Wolf Husbandry Manual Committee Members Stephanie Bestelmeyer Colorado State University Dept.Yulee, FL 32097, USA (904) Mike Kinsey Denver Zoological Gardens 2300 Steele St. Denver, CO 80205, USA (303) Fran Lyon Oklahoma City Zoo 2101 NE 50 th Oklahoma City, OK 73111, USA (405) Melissa Rodden National Zoo CRC 1500 Remount Rd. Front Royal, VA 22630, USA (540) Mary Jo Stearns Fossil Rim Wildlife Center PO Box 2189, Glen Rose, TX 76043, USA (817) Steve Taylor Louisville Zoo PO Box Louisville, KY 40233, USA (502) Diana L. Weinhardt Houston Zoological Gardens 1513 North MacGregor Houston, TX 77030, USA (713) Lee Werle Woodland Park Zoo 5500 Phinney Ave. Most knowledge is based on anecdotal evidence and two or three studies. The following is an overview of literature concerning the maned wolves habits in the wild. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS There is no marked sexual dimorphism in size or appearance. Their legs are long and stilt-like allowing them to see above and move through the tall grasses. Pelage is a rusty red on the body; the muzzle and the lower legs are dark brown or black. There is a patch of brown or black fur on the back of the neck. This fur and that on the shoulders is longer than the rest of the body. The throat, inside of the ears and the tail tip are white. There is little variation in these patterns between individuals. TAXONOMY Maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) are members of the canid family, which encompasses 15 genera and 35 species (Sheldon, l992). The karyotype of maned wolves is similar to Canis but the diploid number is 76 for Chrysocyon and 78 for members of the genus Canis (Dietz, l984).http://www.pflegedienste-heinze.de/userfiles/euro-pro-shark-manual.xml Taxonomists feel the maned wolf is most closely related to the genus Dusicyon (Clutton-Brock, et al, 1976). STATUS IN THE WILD Accurate estimates of the wild maned wolf population are difficult to obtain due to the secretive nature of the species. Figures of individuals in 650,000 km in Brazil are indicative of the species compromised status in the wild (dasilveira, l968). Long term recovery of viable maned wolf habitat is less likely due to ranchers converting much of their grassland to farmland thereby destroying habitat. There are an estimated 2200 individuals occupying a limited range in northern Argentina (Beccacecci, 1992). Maned wolves are classified as Endangered by USDI, vulnerable by IUCN, endangered by the Brazilian government and are an Appendix II species under CITES (SSP fact sheet, l990). DIET Maned wolves in the wild are omnivorous, opportunistically feeding on a variety of different items. Seasonal changes in food availability result in changes in dietary components. Animal material consumed includes small mammals (rodents, armadillos), reptiles, gastropods and bird eggs (da Silveira, 1968). Wolves are also known to kill domestic poultry. Farmers sometimes retaliate against the wolves, resulting in a mortality rate for wolves from hunting. This everbearing fruit is a consistent part of the wolves diet throughout the year. Lobeira, a member of the Solanaceae family, resembles a large tomato that turns yellow when ripe. Wolves are believed to consume the fruit before it is ripened (Dietz, l984). Matera (1968) reported that the fruit plays a role in the treatment of giant kidney worm, a common parasite in maned wolves, although there is no scientific evidence to support the theory. Mated pairs do share a home range but are rarely seen together except during breeding season. Territories are marked by site specific defecation spots and landmarks that present physical barriers (roads, rivers). Same sex animals' territories do not overlap.http://www.bouwdata.net/evenement/4-speed-manual-cars The same home range is thought to be occupied throughout life. When an animal dies or abandons a territory a nomadic individual usually takes up residence in the range. Within territories animals are known to mark with scats and urine. Marking often takes place on elevated surfaces, such as termite mounds. (Dietz, l984). Maned wolves are also thought to utilize a roar-bark to announce their location within their territory. Few actual observations of pups have been noted in the wild. Most information is anecdotal but suggests that females and possibly males defend nest or den sites for a period of time after parturition (Dietz, l984). REPRODUCTION Maned wolves in the wild are believed to be monestrus with estrus lasting approximately 5 days (Dietz, l984). Following a day gestation 2-5 pups are born. Births may occur as early as February, but the majority of pups are born during the dry season from June into September (Dietz, 1984). Females will cache food at nest sites before whelping. Most denning sites utilize some type of existing topography. Maned wolves are not believed to excavate their own nests but use rocky outcroppings, low spots in grasslands, and abandoned termite mounds. Dimensions of one den were 60cm wide by 100cm deep (Dietz, l984). DISEASES Maned wolves in the wild suffer from two primary disease processes: parasites and cystinuria. The most debilitating parasite found in maned wolves is the Giant kidney worm (Dioctophyme renale). This worm is transferred via intermediate hosts (fish and mollusks) that the wolves consume. The parasite always infects the right kidney, severely damaging or destroying the organ (Matera et al, l968). Other parasites noted in wild maned wolves include nematodes (Trichuris, Ancylostoma, Toxocara) and cestodes. Ectoparasites include ticks and screw worm larvae. A noticeable lack of fleas on trapped animals may be due to the lack of underfur on adult wolves (Dietz, l984).http://abqwinair.com/images/brother-sx-4000-instruction-manual.pdf Cystinuria was also found in a significant number of captured maned wolves (Dietz, l984). This inherited condition results in excessive excretion of amino acids (primarily cystine) in the urine. REFERENCES Beccacecci, M.D. The maned wolf, Chrysocyon brachyurus, in Argentina. SCIENCE 212:, Brady, C.A. and M.K. Ditton. Management and breeding of maned wolves at the National Zoo. INTL. ZOO YEARBOOK, 19:, l979. Clutton-Brock, J., G.B. Corbet and M. Mills. A Review of the family Canidae, with a classification by numerical methods. BULLETIN OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM, Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 8 9 ZOOLOGY, 29:, l976. Dietz, J. Ecology and social organization of the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus). SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ZOOLOGY, Number 392, l984. Dietz, J.M. Chrysocyon brachyurus. MAMMALIAN SPECIES 234:1-4, Kleiman, D.G. Social behavior of the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) and bush dog (Speothos venaticus): a study in contrast.Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA, pp.69-75, l992. SSP Fact Sheet. Maned wolf Chrysocyon brachyurus. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ZOOS AND AQUARIUMS, Bethesda, MD, l990. Wayne, R.K. and S.J. O'Brien. Allozyme divergence within the Canidae. SYST. ZOOL., 36(4):, l987. Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 9 10 CHAPTER TWO CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT Lee Werle Woodland Park Zoo Norah B. Fletchall John Ball Zoo Diana Weinhardt Houston Zoo David Westbrook Little Rock Zoo Effective management of the maned wolf requires careful planning, constant review and revision of some practices and an open line of communication at all levels of care. This chapter attempts to give guidelines and direction in several areas. Managers are encouraged to use this as a base of information and to report to the SSP coordinator new experiences that may alter these guidelines. Managers are encouraged to call on other institutions with questions before proceeding.https://diagonal.org.ar/wp-content/plugins/formcraft/file-upload/server/content/files/1628fc033e4f4f---Carvin-c1644-manual.pdf HOUSING AND ENCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS Housing and enclosure design are critical for effective management of the maned wolf. Exhibits should be large enough and contain adequate visual barriers to provide the occupants with a certain degree of privacy and the ability to avoid both the public and each other when desired. Managers are encouraged to contact the MWSSP Coordinator and other facilities housing maned wolves when designing an exhibit and off-exhibit holding area. Maned wolves are typically housed in male-female pairs. Same-sex pairs or trios of siblings have also been housed together, usually on a temporary basis, but sometimes for several years. Since maned wolves give birth in the dead of winter, housing requirements vary according to climatic conditions at each institution. The average minimum daily temperature for the prime birth months for maned wolves living in the Serra da Canastra National Park, Brazil, was approximately 45 degrees Fahrenheit (Dietz, 1984). Institutions located in climates where daily minimum temperatures regularly fall below that level must provide facilities with adequate supplemental heat. The following general guidelines should be heeded by institutions planning to house maned wolves. Zoos housing breeding pairs should read this chapter carefully, as breeding animals may require additional features: 1. In addition to the main enclosure, a backup (holding) facility must be available for separating individual members of a pair or group. Ideally, a holding facility would consist of an outdoor yard, which may be adjacent to the main enclosure, and an indoor den area. 2. Each animal in the exhibit should be provided with an indoor den area. The latter may be preferred by zoos in harsher climates Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 10 11 where animals may need to be locked in during extremely cold weather.alrashed-alsaleh.com/userfiles/files/98-hyundai-elantra-owners-manual.pdf Institutions intending to house more than one adult pair of animals are strongly encouraged to separate pairs by as much physical distance as possible. If adult pairs must be housed in adjacent exhibits, a solid barrier is required. Every attempt should be made to isolate pairs recommended for breeding from other adult maned wolves. Young ( 12 Topography: Exhibits may be terraced, sloped, contain high and low spots, etc. An exhibit with no change in elevation should be avoided unless plantings or other structures are utilized to allow wolves areas to hide or find shelter. Plantings: Natural vegetation should be provided in the exhibit. Institutions must determine which plant species are appropriate for the climate. Plants that are potentially toxic should not be used as the wolves may chew or consume them. Maned wolves also scent mark on some plantings, so hardy plant species are recommended. Temperature: Maned wolves can be exhibited in a variety of temperatures and climatic conditions. Although no absolute minimum and maximum can serve all animals, care should be taken to avoid both extremes. Minimum temperatures must take into account wind, snow and or ice in the enclosure, age and coat condition of animal. Maximum temperatures must take into account degree of shade (shaded areas should be provided), humidity, age and condition of individual. Animals that are transferred to different areas of the country should be slowly acclimatized to changes in climate. Indoor Enclosure Requirements Type: Ideally each wolf should have its own area off-exhibit constructed in such a way that each individual can be held in the area without access to the exhibit. This allows keepers to work in the exhibit safely. Minimum recommended dimensions for these areas are square feet to house one animal. If an area houses more than one adult each animal must have its own resting box (16-25 square feet). These boxes provide a hiding spot for more secretive individuals.https://saraelv.no/wp-content/plugins/formcraft/file-upload/server/content/files/1628fc03e41f14---carville-wound-care-manual.pdf Resting boxes within these areas can be made of wood but care should be taken to monitor destructive chewing of the boxes. Resting boxes should be large enough for the animal to stand and turn around, 4' x 4' x 4' high is adequate. Whelping areas are discussed in a section later in this chapter and in Chapter Five-Reproduction. Structure: Indoor enclosure areas can be made of a variety of materials. Concrete is the most predominant, but other materials can be used. Any material should be able to withstand chewing and exposure to urine, feces, etc. Access should be provided for keepers to clean and service these areas. Substrate: Concrete, wood or natural substrates can be utilized. If natural substrate is used some type of litter may need to be provided (shavings, straw, grass,) to absorb urine. Bedding may also be necessary during colder weather. Whatever substrate is used should be able to withstand disinfectants, urine, feces, etc. Animals housed in concrete areas should be provided with an elevated resting bench or the floor must be covered with bedding such as hay or straw. Lighting: Natural or artificial lighting should be provided for each area. Natural lighting has benefits of varying light cycles, however, on cloudy days this lighting may not be sufficient for servicing the areas. In holding areas where wolves are not exposed to natural light timers on lights are recommended to simulate natural light cycles. Heating: Some type of auxiliary heating needs to be provided if temperatures in the area will fall below 40 degrees Fahrenheit for adult animals. This minimum must be 45 degrees for whelping areas but may vary between individuals. Heat may be in the form of forced air, or electrical heaters such as space heaters, radiant heaters, heat pads or panels and heat lamps. Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 12 13 Ventilation: Adequate ventilation should be provided to prevent areas from being continually wet and must also provide freshened air.https://www.tenniscanberra.com.au/wp-content/plugins/formcraft/file-upload/server/content/files/1628fc0478a5de---Carvin-amp-manuals.pdf Care must be taken to avoid drafts, particularly in whelping areas. Doors: Animals doors in the holding area can be composed of a variety of materials. Guillotine or sliding doors can be utilized. Domestic dog doors and vinyl freezer strips can be used in areas where heat retention in the dens is important during times when animals have unrestricted access to dens. Animal access doors to the exhibit should be remotely operated. It is strongly recommended that institutions housing potential breeding pairs install remote video monitoring equipment or a blind to allow keepers to observe activities without disturbing the wolves. Video cameras must be mounted out of reach of the wolves. Cameras that have wide angle lens and can function at very low light levels are recommended. MANAGEMENT DURING PREGNANCY and PUP REARING-see also Chapter Five The maned wolf exhibits a typical canid gestation of approximately 65 days. Although in the past males were usually separated from females for birth and pup rearing, it is now recognized that a pair bond does exist, and most males will invest a good deal of parental care in pups. The strength of the pair bond, and the degree of compatibility exhibited by a pair will influence the manager's decision whether to leave the male in for the birth. Recently, several zoos have successfully experimented with separating a sire to an adjacent area where all but physical contact can be maintained, and reintroducing him to dam and pups once the young begin emerging from the den at 5-6 weeks of age. Consultation with managers whose maned wolves have successfully parent-reared pups is highly recommended. Whelping Areas Since maned wolves give birth during the winter, adequate heat must be provided in whelping dens to maintain temperatures above 45 degrees Fahrenheit. Whelping areas should also be free from drafts. Managers should keep in mind that floor temperatures will affect neonates.alliedpers.com/userfiles/files/98-hyundai-accent-service-manual.pdf Institutions anticipating births during winter months should contact management group members for advice regarding temperatures. Maned wolves will usually move pups, therefore more than one nest box should be provided. Dams seem to prefer a small space with a low ceiling, therefore a typical nest box measures 4' x 4' x 4' high. Even smaller spaces may be preferred, although the design should take technical requirements for video monitoring into account. Designs incorporating a partition or L-shaped entry may provide more security to a dam with newborn pups. Whether nest boxes are contained within a larger structure or constructed as separate individual units depends on climatic conditions at the institution. In cold climates, it is recommended that the whelping den be a large heated structure, e.g. 15' x 15' or larger, furnished with 2 or more nest boxes measuring 4' x 4'. The dam and pups could then be locked in during extreme weather. Parents and pups should be discouraged from digging under the den or nest box, both because of the resulting inability to monitor the pups and the risk of injury to pups. It is recommended that nest boxes be equipped with a door, e.g. guillotine, that can be operated remotely so that keepers can access feeding areas safely. Neonatal mortality rates have historically averaged around 50 for the global captive population. Mortality most frequently occurs during the first week of life. It is therefore highly recommended that nest boxes be equipped for remote video monitoring. Nest boxes may contain bedding of straw, carpet, or cedar chips. Hay is not recommended because of the risk to pups of inhaling small particles. Changes in Keeper Routine and Public Access During the first weeks after a birth, some institutions close the exhibit to public viewing. Most managers try to limit care of new litters to a few individuals who are familiar to the parent(s). Consistency in procedures and observations are also enhanced by limiting the number of individuals dealing with the animals. Other zoos make no changes in routine for new litters. Although it is generally accepted that dams with new litters prefer solitude and seclusion, the degree of isolation provided will be up to individual managers and should be based on the temperament of the individual animals. Reintroducing the male has been done between the ages of 6-12 weeks. Introducing the male through a fence barrier for a minimum of one week is recommended. Pay special attention to both the female's reaction and the reaction of the puppies. RECORDKEEPING The foundation of any successful management program is the establishment of information gathering and recording policies and procedures. Institutions have a variety of methods for gathering information on specimens within the collection, daily reports, unit logs, etc., but the value of this information is lost if it is not centralized in some form. Specific information that should be collected includes: Medical--Health problems, treatments (including medication, dosage amount and duration, results, etc.), tranquilizations (type, amount, effect, etc.) Reproductive Data--Dates and signs of breeding behavior, copulation dates and frequency, birth dates, survivorship, parent or hand-reared, etc. Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 14 15 Behavioral--Interactions with conspecifics (especially during an introduction), abnormal or unusual behavior(s), seasonal variations, what seems to constitute normal behavior for the individual. The captive management of maned wolves will continue to rely on the routine movement of individuals to ensure the genetic fitness of the population. In order to make the transition from one facility to another as stress free as possible for the animal we cannot underestimate the value of the records that accompany that individual. Institutions that receive an animal must ensure that information sent with the animal reaches the appropriate staff. The International studbook number is to be tattooed on the inner thigh of each animal, the protocol of left for female and right for male should be followed. Transponder implants are recommended for this species. Observable physical uniqueness must be entered in the permanent records of each animal. Deformed or partially missing ears or tail, scars, limp, etc.Behavioral characteristics are also an excellent aid to individual identification as well as pertinent to the management of the individual and are to be included in the permanent records. CAPTURE AND RESTRAINT The use of a catch box should be considered a standard management tool. Having an easily transported box, with access ports, which can be placed at routinely used animal transfer doors will facilitate many handling needs that arise with this species. Conditioning, coercing, or crowding an animal into a crate can reduce the stress associated with routine vaccinations, administration of tranquilizer, transport, or preparation for some other procedure. Catch nets, crowding boards (to pin an animal in a corner or against a fence or wall), catch poles and tranquilization (for any procedure) are other methods used with this species. See Chapter Seven for data regarding tranquilizers. TRANSPORT PROCEDURES Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 15 16 Crate training prior to shipment should be considered as a standard management procedure. The routine use of a catch box will aid in conditioning an animal to be familiar with being confined. The crate must be leak proof, the inside free of projections or material that could cause injury. It is highly recommended to cut threads (via the use of a die) on the ends of the hinge rod and the locking rod and use self locking nuts to prevent the door from being forced open. Many air cargo facilities will use IATA guidelines for domestic shipments and will not accept plastic kennels for shipment of this species. Managers should contact local airlines prior to designing crates. Exceptions may be made for pups, but plastic kennels should not be considered for adults. Animals having access to food and water prior to shipment should not require feeding for 24 hours or watering for 12 hours once the animal is shipped. The delay of a shipment is always a possibility so food and water containers should always be provided. IATA regulations must be followed for international shipments. Some specifics of note are: plastic kennels are not acceptable; food and water containers are required; a dropping tray with absorbent material must be provided. NOTE: IATA Live Animals Regulations is an annual publication that is routinely updated and, therefore, subject to changes which can affect animal shipments. This publication should be considered as a mandatory tool for proper shipping of live animals and is ordered from: Publications Assistant IATA 2000 Peel Street Montreal, Quebec CANADA H3A 2R4 (514) Pre-shipment physicals are discussed in Chapter Seven but one must be aware that requirements do vary between institutions and those requirements must be met. Some states require an import permit or state license that must be obtained prior to shipment. Maned wolves are listed as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act and, therefore, require an USFWS export or import permit for any international shipment. Many countries also require import permits for animals entering their country that you must obtain from recipient prior to a shipment. Maned wolves are listed as Appendix II under CITES which necessitates an export permit from the CITES representative of the country exporting the animal. The rewards of enrichment will far outweigh whatever effort is expended. Physical and psychological stimulus of an otherwise static environment will have obvious benefits to the overall well being of the individual(s). Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 16 17 Exhibit enrichment considerations Varied topography. Furniture: large rocks, stumps, brush pile, logs and branches, pile of leaves. Use items that can easily be moved in and out, or around the exhibit to provide change. Water features, pool, stream. Food items: Large bones. Rabbit (with fur left on), whole mice or rats, chicken or quail (feathered), live crickets, and fish. Seasonal fruits and vegetables. Olfactory stimulants, (only small amounts needed): Common herbs and spices. Perfume (veterinary approval should be obtained). Feces or urine from other species (veterinarian approval should be obtained). Toys: Encourage staff members to use their imagination. Large bones. Large Rawhide chew toys. Sticks and small branches. Feathers. PEST CONTROL (Adapted from Chapter 2: Medical Management of Tigers, Management and Conservation of Captive Tigers, edited by Ronald Tilson, Gerald Brady, Kathy Traylor-Holzer, and Douglas Armstrong). An obvious need for pest control exists in any animal holding facility. Feral animals serve as sources of additional problems for maned wolves. Rodents, birds, domestic cats or dogs, or other pests that have access to the maned wolf or its enclosure may serve as a source of contamination for microorganisms or parasites. Well maintained perimeter fencing provides an initial deterrent to larger feral animals, particularly dogs. However, climbing animals, such as feral cats, can easily defeat such barriers; therefore, areas around maned wolf enclosures should be monitored regularly for feral animal activity. Live trapping provides a method of removing feral animals. Local animal shelters may assist in removal of captured domestic animals. Removal of captured wildlife may be coordinated through state agencies or local rehabilitation groups. Trapping does not provide a total eradication of pests; therefore, the design of the maned wolf enclosures should reduce exposure to feral animals. Rodent Pests Maned Wolf SSP Husbandry Manual 17 18 Rodent pests must be handled through a well planned, supervised, continuous pest control program. Safe rodenticides are available for use around maned wolves when applied according to their directions. Care must be taken in choosing compounds that are effective, yet not highly toxic, especially when considering secondary toxicities. A number of effective anticoagulant rodenticides are available with little or no secondary toxicity potential, e.g., warfarin, diphacinone, cholecalciferol. Extreme caution should be exercised to assure that maned wolves do not consume rodents who have ingested these rodenticides. When rodent populations become unmanageable or resistant to anti-coagulants, other more toxic compounds, such as zinc phosphide may be needed, requiring extra care in their application. It may seem too obvious, but it should be emphasized that at no time should maned wolves have primary access to any rodenticide. Insect Pests Good sanitation aids in reducing insect populations, but all zoological situations experience insect pests, particularly cockroaches. Insecticide applications can be made around maned wolf enclosures with chemicals that are safe when applied in a proper manner. There are many chemicals available, both primary insecticides and newer growth regulator compounds that have low toxicity potential when used correctly. (Examples of insecticides include: diazinon, piperonyl butoxide, natural and synthetic pyrethrins, carbamates, chlorpyrifos; example of growth inhibitor is Gencor.) Maned Wolf enclosures are treated by removing the maned wolves, applying chemicals safe to use in primary enclosures, and then cleaning the enclosure to avoid exposure to returning maned wolves.