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Pa ako se vidi onda nije problem, ali ako treba demontirati vise tog onda necu nista dirati. Discover everything Scribd has to offer, including books and audiobooks from major publishers. Start Free Trial Cancel anytime. North Carolina Travel Guide 2010 Uploaded by Journal Communications 100 (1) 100 found this document useful (1 vote) 3K views 194 pages Document Information click to expand document information Description: The Official North Carolina Travel Guide is the state Division of Tourism, Film and Sports Development's official guide for visitors looking for travel information about North Carolina. Feature stories, attractions and accommodations listings, and other important information are included in the annual publication. Report this Document Download Now Save Save North Carolina Travel Guide 2010 For Later 100 (1) 100 found this document useful (1 vote) 3K views 194 pages North Carolina Travel Guide 2010 Uploaded by Journal Communications Description: The Official North Carolina Travel Guide is the state Division of Tourism, Film and Sports Development's official guide for visitors looking for travel information about North Carolina.Browse Books Site Directory Site Language: English Change Language English Change Language.http://www.cheap-parceldelivery.com/userfiles/carrier-edge-thermostat-control-manual.xml (d) access To ensure that every length of drain can be rodded, the design should include all necessary access points, such as: rodding eyes access chambers inspection chambers manholes. Sizes of access fittings and chambers should be specified for the depth of invert as detailed in Appendix 5.3-A. Inspection chambers and manholes may be the following types: open, half-round section channel with suitable benching, or closed access - at manholes, cover panels have to be removed to gain access to the pipe. Side branches to inspection chambers and manholes should discharge into the main channel not higher than half pipe level. Connections should be made obliquely in the direction of flow. For construction details of access fittings and chambers, reference should be made to clause S6. Where ground movement may occur, precautions against leakage are needed. In mining areas, and in other locations where movement could be significant, a flexible pipe system should be specified. Flexible systems should be flexible pipes with flexible joints. Refer to Sitework Clause S5. Proper allowance should be made for settlement. Where there is a risk of soil movement, for example in made-up ground, design gradients should be steeper than the minimum allowed for the flow rate and pipe size. In non-uniform or saturated soils where movements of the trench bottom can be expected, soft spots should be removed and replaced with suitable material. Protective blinding should be specified for the trench bottom, to be placed immediately following excavation. In ground conditions where movement is likely to adversely affect the drain a support system for the drain should be designed by an Engineer in accordance with Technical Requirement R5. Shrinkage and heave of clay soils can affect pipelines. Design gradients should be greater than the permitted minimum to allow for possible movement. Refer to Chapter 4.2 'Building near trees' for details of zones of influence of trees.http://eco-region31.ru/bosch-premium-vacuum-manual (b) flooding Where there is a risk of flooding the advice of the relevant Rivers Authority should be followed. (c) ground water Foul and surface water drainage systems should prevent the ingress of ground water. Where drainage trenches are near foundations, foundation depths should be increased or the drain re-routed further from the foundations. Where the bottom of a trench is below foundation level, the trench should be filled with concrete to a suitable level. Where drains pass through structural elements, allowance should be made for differential movement, thermal movement and maintenance. Pipes passing through substructure walls should accommodate movement by: 50mm clearance all round, or a sleeve with a 50mm clearance, or if built in, a connection on both sides of the wall to pipes with flexible joints located not more than 150mm from the face of the wall. Refer to Sitework clause S5(a). See clause D4(b) for prevention of gas entering the building. (b) loads from overlying fill and traffic Pipes should be firmly supported throughout their length and bedded to resist loads from overlying fill and traffic. Small diameter rigid pipes may be laid: directly on trench bottoms, or bedded on granular material. Refer to Sitework clause S4. For flexible pipes, and where a greater factor of safety is needed, specify the bedding class and grading of backfill as described in BS EN 13242, BS 5955 and BS EN 752. Refer to Sitework clause S4(a). When using proprietary systems assessed in accordance with Technical Requirement R3, pipes should be supported in accordance with the assessment. Special protection may be required where pipes are near the ground surface or where they could be damaged by the weight of backfill or traffic load from above. Guidance is given in Sitework clause S5 and in BS 5955 and BS EN 752. Manhole covers, gully gratings and other fittings should be suitable for the traffic conditions.http://efesup.com/images/c51-keil-manual.pdf (c) chemicals in ground and ground water If the ground or ground water contains sulfates, concrete and masonry work may require special precautions as detailed in Chapters 2.1 'Concrete and its reinforcement' (Design) and 6.1 'External masonry walls' (Design). They should be consulted as to the type and position of the connection to be made. All connections to a private sewer will require the agreement of the owners of the sewer. This should be obtained as part of the design process. If the main private sewer discharges into a public sewer the local sewerage undertaker should be notified of the proposal. (b) connection to a cesspool or a septic tank The entry flow velocity should be restricted to reduce disturbance in the tank. For drains not exceeding 150mm diameter a gradient not steeper than 1:50 for a distance of at least 12m upstream of the entry is required. Rodding and cleaning facilities should be provided at the connection with the tank. (c) connection to surface water disposal systems Surface water drainage is generally required to be separated from foul water drainage. Surface water may be discharged into public surface water main drains or directly into natural watercourses, ponds or soakaways, as appropriate. Surface water should not discharge to a septic tank or cesspool, or a separate foul sewer. For large or complicated dwellings the amount of surface water to be disposed of may be calculated by reference to BS 6367. Siting of soakaways should take account of topography to ensure that water is drained away from the building. In soil of low permeability, soakaways should only be provided where no alternative system is available. Soakaways should be a minimum of 5m from any adjacent building. A simple test for assessing the permeability of the soil and how to convert the result into soakaway dimensions is detailed in Appendix 5.3-E. A more refined method to determine soakaway size is given in BRE Digest 365.http://atlantichomeportugal.com/wp-content/plugins/formcraft/file-upload/server/content/files/1629b2d246195d---Cost-accounting-planning-and-control-14th-edition-manual.pdf (d) cesspools A cesspool is a tank which stores effluent and has to be emptied periodically. Cesspools should be sited within 30m of a vehicle access to permit emptying. They should be at least 7m from a dwelling. Cesspools are required to be at least 18m 3 capacity. Septic tank design is detailed in BS 6297. Septic tanks should be sited within 30m of a vehicle access to permit emptying. In Scotland they should be at least 5m from a dwelling and a boundary. CAPACITY The capacity of the septic tank should be based on the number of people it will serve. OUTFALL The outfall from a septic tank may require consent from the Environment Agency in England and Wales. In Northern Ireland the Environment and Heritage Service should approve proposals. In Scotland the Scottish Environment Protection Agency should approve proposals. The designer should ensure at an early stage that consent will be given, or an alternative method of drainage selected. Copies of relevant consents are required by NHBC before work commences. POROUS SUBSOILS If the outfall from a septic tank is to discharge to a porous subsoil, such as gravel, sand or chalk, at a level above that of the winter water table level, a soakaway may be used. This consists of an excavation filled with brick bats or other large pieces of inert material; or unfilled but lined, eg with dry laid brickwork or precast concrete (porous or perforated) rings, from which the effluent may percolate into the surrounding ground. Soakaways which are not filled should be covered by a slab incorporating an inspection cover. The size of the soakaway should be determined as described in Appendix 5.3-C, the area of the bottom of the soakaway should equal the area of trench bottom in Chart 1. Where the porous strata is overlaid by less permeable sub soil a bore hole may be permitted by the appropriate authority. Proprietary septic tanks should be assessed in accordance with Technical Requirement R3.www.fruko-schulz.com/upload/files/britony-flexiflue-boiler-manual.pdf LESS POROUS SUBSOILS In less porous subsoils a sub surface irrigation system may be a possible alternative. Such an alternative will have to be designed to determine the area of the sub surface drainage trench from which the length of land drain can be found. First a percolation test has to be carried out to determine the percolation value (s) in seconds. Details of how to carry out the test are given in Appendix 5.3-B. If the percolation value is less than 100s use Chart 1 to determine the field drain trench area and Chart 2 the pipe length to provide this area. For percolation values between 100s and 140s underdrains are necessary. For percolation values in excess of 140s the soil is unsuitable for field drains. Design guidance for underdrains is given in Appendix 5.3-D. FIELD DRAINS These should be: sited taking account of topography to ensure that water is drained away from the building perforated pipes laid at least 500mm below the surface laid in trenches with a uniform gradient not steeper than 1:200 with undisturbed ground 2m wide between trenches and at least 8m from any building and 10m from any water course laid on a 150mm bed of clinker, clean gravel or broken stone (20 - 50mm grade) and the trenches filled to a level 50mm above the pipe and covered with strips of plastic material to prevent entry of silt backfilled with as dug material. Note. If the level of the water table is expected to rise in the winter months to within 1m of the invert of the field drains, it is not acceptable to use sub-surface irrigation. (f) small private sewage treatment works for more than one dwelling Small sewage treatment works for more than one dwelling should be designed in accordance with BS 6297. The discharge from the waste water treatment plant should be sited at least 10m away from water courses and dwellings. The design should be carried out by a suitably qualified engineer.https://artmetinc.com/wp-content/plugins/formcraft/file-upload/server/content/files/1629b2d271d72c---cost-accounting-matz-usry-7th-edition-manual.pdf Where available, ground water drainage may discharge into a soakaway, preferably through a catchpit or into a watercourse. In England and Wales the National Rivers Authority consent may be needed for discharge proposals. In Northern Ireland the Department of Environment should approve proposals; in Scotland the River Purification Authority should approve proposals. Drains or sewers which are intended for adoption should be clearly identified on relevant drawings. You can change your cookie settings at any time. This reduces the risk of “flash-flooding” which occurs when rainwater rapidly flows into the public sewerage and drainage systems. We’ll send you a link to a feedback form. It will take only 2 minutes to fill in. Don’t worry we won’t send you spam or share your email address with anyone. There are numerous design guides that cover drainage design and recommend appropriate standards. These standards often overlap and this can cause considerable confusion with stakeholders. CIRIA’s C635 publication on Drainage Exceedance gives more detail. It is suggested that return periods of one in 30 to one in 100 or one in 200 year events would form a suitable framework for most applications. Where health and safety issues are important it could be argued that the concept of “any conceivable event” inherent in the procedures set out in the Reservoirs Act 1975 might be applicable. For this purpose the 1000 year event may be suitable. Further guidance on design criteria is given in CIRIA's C635 publication. Increasing practitioner and decision makers’ (eg between drainage and highways) confidence in applying the approach is important. Many drainage and planning documents reference the guide (although its contents may need to be refreshed). Further information on the management of inflow and infiltration can be found in the Regional Drainage Policy on Inflow, Infiltration and Exfiltration.https://www.siscard.com/wp-content/plugins/formcraft/file-upload/server/content/files/1629b2eaab0903---Cost-accounting-matz-usry-9th-edition-manual.pdf Design and assessment criteria for sewers, rivers and SuDS measures are proposed together with design principles and procedures for estimating volumes of individual SuDS facilities. Appendix E provides an illustration of the approach for assessing stormwater storage requirements. It is important to realise that all drainage systems are designed to a set of criteria that are subject to economic, social and environmental constraints. It is not feasible to design for all circumstances and there will always be instances when extreme events will exceed the design criteria. The design process therefore should be one of risk management, whereby the consequences of larger events than the design event are assessed for their cost and environmental impacts. 6.1 The Impact of Urban Stormwater Runoff Rainfall runoff in an urban environment effectively takes place instantly for areas served by traditional drainage systems and nearly all the rain that falls on impermeable surfaces runs off. The rate of runoff and the volume of runoff are both important components in analysing the performance of a network. For storms above a certain magnitude the performance of the network downstream may be exceeded. Rainfall-related flooding of the drainage network, simply defined, is the concentration of stormwater to a point from which it cannot escape quickly enough to avoid ponding or passing on as overland flow. In addition to the hydraulic behaviour of traditional drainage systems, their water quality management characteristics are poor and this problem is now recognised as a major issue in terms of polluting receiving waters. The quality of receiving waters and the types of main pollutants are covered in detail in the Regional Policy for Environmental Management. The impact of rainfall in an urban environment is summarised below.www.daisy-book.com/userfiles/files/britony-combi-service-manual.pdf If this is more than a small percentage of the total area, then the network becomes rapidly overloaded by even relatively small events, causing backing up and flooding either directly into houses or externally. Basements that are connected to the foul system are particularly susceptible to this form of flooding, and the social impact can be very high. Normally, foul water is conveyed directly to WwTW after which it is discharged to a river or the sea. Flows passing to treatment works that are diluted by rainfall, result in reduced treatment efficiency at the works as well as discharging excess flows into storm tanks and, if these fill and spill, untreated effluent passes into the receiving waters. Occasionally flood relief is provided to these sewers, due to the degree of impermeable area connected to them, by providing CSOs. This infiltration can be caused by a number of conditions. Infiltration can be due to temporary ground saturation due to recent rainfall, elevated groundwater levels caused by extended rainfall, or tidal influence in coastal low level systems. Due to their relatively small drainage capacity, it is possible for badly affected networks to become surcharged from relatively minor rainfall events. For systems that are badly affected, infiltration can be more of a problem to treatment works than misconnected impermeable areas in that dilute flows will occur for extensive periods. Combined Sewers Water pollution and large discharges take place to receiving water bodies when combined sewers spill during wet weather. Pollution can be particularly acute during times of low river flow, particularly after prolonged dry periods when sediments, that have built-up in the pipe network, are scoured out in the first flush. For extreme rainfall, overflows of dilute sewage can be accommodated more easily in receiving waters, but they can be equally damaging due to the scouring effects of the very high discharge rates that can occur. Stormwater Sewers Stormwater sewers are designed to collect all run-off from paved areas and exclude foul sewage. When storm sewers are over-loaded, flooding can occur and this is particularly serious when internal flooding of properties takes place. The level of service provided by stormwater sewers is often much less than the initial design intended due to additional developments taking place either by in-filling existing urban areas or being extended upstream. The polluting effects of stormwater runoff in streams or flooding in houses is not significantly different to flooding from foul sewers. The contaminated silts and other detritus from urban areas and the occasional illicit foul connection makes the impact of internal flooding equally unpleasant and damaging. The high runoff rates which can occur, if unchecked, can cause erosion problems in receiving streams and also re-entrain polluted sediment from the riverbed. It is now recognised that surface water systems are a major cause of river pollution. Open Channel Watercourses While open channel watercourses, such as rivers and streams, normally have a greater hydraulic capacity than piped systems, the consequences of flooding are usually greater due to the scale of the event. This concern usually results in more conservative design criteria being used. The consequences of flooding from a culverted watercourse are usually far more dramatic than with river flooding. This is because the capacity of the river greatly increases as water levels rise, while the capacity of a culvert by comparison, once surcharged, only marginally increases with the increase in hydraulic head. Culverting rivers also causes significant ecological loss, as well as producing negative aesthetic impact and other negative environmental effects. The water quality in open channel watercourses can be directly related to the catchment land use, either urban or rural. The base flows in watercourses in urban areas are reduced, peak flows during rainfall are higher and generally all measures of water quality show deterioration. This varies with land use type (residential, industrial and commercial areas), and depends on stormwater management techniques used. Each of these three principles is expanded upon below. The drainage engineer should have a number of questions that are addressed by the proposed design. If consideration is given to all these questions it will generally ensure that a sustainable drainage system is designed. The concept of sustainability is now well accepted. This is resulting in a move away from traditional drainage methods, and the recommended use of SuDS systems to provide hydraulic, water quality and environmental benefits. In addition more attention is now being paid to the consumption of natural resources and the ability to recycle these materials. The issue of climate change is now of major importance and this draws attention to the energy aspects of construction. This includes not only the energy requirements to build the drainage system, but also the energy requirements for its maintenance and the energy needed to manufacture the components used in the system. The design of the drainage system should try and replicate, in a general way, the same rainfallrunoff characteristics for the pre-development condition of the site. The runoff is much slower, less polluted and has virtually no runoff from ordinary rainfall events. The use of SuDS, particularly components which encourage infiltration, will enable this principle to be achieved. The design of drainage systems needs to minimise water pollution and maximise environmental benefits. SuDS units are designed to address stormwater water quality as well as providing hydraulic conveyance. Consideration should also be given to what might happen if the drainage system “fails” as well as its performance during normal operation. The principal objective of drainage is to provide protection from flooding due to rainfall on an area. The level of service provided is a function of society’s expectations as well as the cost-benefit of the system based on the damage consequences due to flooding. Current design criteria normally require that no flooding occurs up to the 30 year return period, and properties are protected against flooding for the 100 year return period. The level of service for existing systems is usually a lower standard, with 5 years being considered as a minimum requirement. Although aesthetics are rarely considered as an issue of level of service provision, considerable expenditure in the UK has been incurred in addressing aesthetic pollution from CSOs. As SuDS systems become more common, it is important to ensure that these are aesthetically acceptable as well as acting as efficient drainage systems. Certain SuDS provide the opportunity for dual land use. Attenuation structures such as ponds have to have the ability to deal with events up to a 100 year return period. This requires large areas adjacent to these structures which are normally dry and can be used for other purposes. Safety is not really a primary level of service issue, but it is clearly an essential aspiration in providing an appropriate design of any system. Drainage design should aim to provide the most cost-effective solution, particularly in terms of maintenance requirements. This requires consideration of whole-life costing of alternative options. Evaluation of the most appropriate system should include hydraulic, water quality and environmental benefits. There is a limited, but growing data set of experience of the capital and operational costs of SuDS. In general, the cost of SuDS systems are believed to be comparable to traditional drainage systems. Long-term performance of SuDS units is still being investigated, particularly with regard to the extent of the maintenance needed. “Failure” mechanisms (flooding and pollution) are more robust for SuDS than traditional systems. It should be recognised that any drainage system can fail, whether it is a traditional system or SuDS. Attention to design detail is important to ensure easy and effective maintenance of all drainage systems. 6.3 Design Criteria Drainage design criteria needs to consider the above principles in order to produce the most appropriate system for any location. Appropriate whole life costing requires appropriate weighting of maintenance against capital costs by applying a Net Present Value method. Sensitivity analysis should theoretically be carried out on various possible solutions to arrive at the most cost beneficial scheme rather than rigidly sticking to a specific design standard. 6.3.1 Sustainability 6.3.1.1 Energy and Use of Natural Resources There are no design criteria that address the selection of appropriate drainage products and achieve the best design which meets energy and natural resource objectives. However certain features of drainage systems such as the use of pumping stations and large underground structures require considerable energy consumption in their construction and operation. There is less information available with regards to making the most sustainable choice when deciding between the use of one product over another. This is a complex area requiring a balance between costs, structural properties of drainage units, site specific aspects, maintenance and, in the long-term, the dismantling and disposal of the system. Although there are no design criteria specifically addressing the minimisation of energy consumption and the use of natural resources, it is important for engineers to be aware that this is an issue which will become more important in the future. 6.3.1.2 Environmental Impact Environmental impact of urban stormwater run-off is characterised by the high levels of sediment and other pollutants, both particulate and dissolved, together with the volume and rate of flow of the run-off causing flooding and erosion in the receiving water. Design criteria can be developed to address these various effects, but these are more easily considered by breaking down the various environmental impacts into their individual components and by comparing with the natural rainfall run-off processes which take place in the greenfield environment. 6.3.1.2.1 River Water Quality Protection Run-off from natural greenfield areas (which are not farmed) contributes a nominal amount of pollutant and sediment in run-off to rivers. For most rainfall events, rainfall depths and intensities are relatively low and direct run-off to rivers does not take place with rainfall percolating into the ground. This water eventually supports the base flow in the river days and weeks after the event has taken place. By contrast urban run-off, when drained by pipe systems, results in run-off from virtually every rainfall event with high levels of pollution, particularly in the first part of the run-off, with little of the rainfall actually percolating into the ground. This results in virtually no support for the base flows in rivers. Table 6.1 summarises the differences in urban and greenfield run-off processes and provides an indication of the design criteria that need to be developed to enable urban run-off to more closely replicate the greenfield condition in protecting river water quality. In practice, there are a number of practical constraints in applying these criteria. 10mm of rainfall run-off from an urban area, especially with a high-density development, provides a considerable volume of runoff.